TIKIS 


A  book  designed  for  use  in  Commercial  Colleges  and 
Technical  Schools,  and  for  private  learners. 


by 


RUDOLPH  0,  STOLL  anl  S,  ESIIL  SVANBECK, 


STOLL'S  COLLEGE,— EAU  CLAIRE,  WIS. 


FIRST  EDITION. 


R.  O.  STOLL,  PUBLISHER. 


EAU  CLAIRE,  WIS. 
EAU  CLAIRE  BOOK  &  STATIONERY  CO. 
1893. 


Copyrighted  1893  by 
R.  O.  STOLL    AND    S.  E.  SWANBECK. 

All  rights  reserved.    Infringements  will  be  prosecuted  to  the  full 
extent  of  the  law. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION— 

1. — Condensed  Review  of  the  Importance  of  the  Knowledge 

of  Wares. 
2. — Their  Classifications. 

Plant  Forms. 
Animal  Forms. 
Mineral  Forms. 
Breakage  and  Fracture. 
Cohesion. 


3. — Their  Characteristics 


Specific  Weight. 


Optical  Properties. 

Transparency. 

Senses  of  Taste  and  Smell. 

The  Adaptability  of  Microscope. 

Chemical  Properties. 

4. — Manner  of  Preserving  Wares. 

PA.RT     FIRST. 

PRODUCTS  FROM  THE  VEGETABLE  KINGDOM. 
Chapter  I. — Cereals  and  their  Products. 
Chapter  II. — Flowers. 
Chapter  III. — Leaves. 
Chapter  IV.— Barks 
Chapter  V. — Roots. 
Chapter  VI. — Sugars. 
Chapter  VII. — Spirituous  Liquors. 
Chapter  VIII.— Dye  Stuffs. 
Chapter  IX. — Resin  and  Balsams. 
Chapter  X. — Natural  Balsams. 
Chapter  XI.— Ethereal  Oils. 
Chapter  XII. — Resinous  Gums. 
Chapter  XlII. — Gums. 

Chapter  XIV. — Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha. 
Chapter  XV. — Vegetable  Fats. 
Chapter  XVI.— Vevetable  Textiles. 
Chapter  XVII. — Trees  and  their  Products. 
Chapter  XVIII. — Lichens,  Seagrass,  Fungas. 
Chapter  XIX.— Vegetable  Salts  and  Acids. 


SECOND. 

ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. 

Chapter  I.  —  Products  from  Vertebrates. 
A.  —  Furs  and  Skins. 
B.—  Hairs,  Wools,  Bristles,  Etc. 
C.—  Horn,  Whale  Bone. 

D.  —  Hartshorn,  Bone,  Ivory,  Etc. 

E.  —  Feather,  Down,  Quill,  Plumage. 
F.—  Gelatine,  Glue,  Etc. 

G.—  Fats. 

H.—  Victuals. 

I.  —  Special  Products. 

J.  —  Drugs  for  Dyeing. 
Chapter  II.  —  Products  from  Molusca. 
Chapter  III.  —  Products  from  Articulata. 

A.  —  Products  from  Insects 

B.  —  Products  from  Crustacean. 
Chapter  IV.  —  Products  from  Radiata. 
Chapter  V.  —  Products  from  Protozoa. 


PRODUCTS  FROM  THE  MINERAL  KINGDOM. 

Chapter  1.  —  Precious  Stones. 

Chapter  II.  —  Ornamental  and  Building  Material. 

Chapter  III.  —  Grinding  and  Polishing  Stones. 

Chapter  IV.--Inflamable  and  Combustable  Material. 

Chapter  V.  —  Writing  and  Drawing  Materials  and  Coloring 

Materials. 

Chapter  VI.—  Mineral  Acids. 
Chapter  VII.—  Mineral  Salts. 

A.  —  Sulphates. 

B.—  Nitrates. 

C.—  Chlorides. 

D.—  Chloride  Acid  Salts. 

E.—  Corate. 

F.  —  Chromate. 

G.—  Carbonate. 

Chapter  VIII.—  Earthen  and  Glassware. 
Chapter  IX.—  Metals  and  Metallic  Substances. 


PREFACE. 


The  immensity  of  commercial  activity  and  voluminous  production 
and  consumption  of  wares  in  this  country  very  naturally  leads  us 
to  conclude  that  manner  of  production,  preparation,  and  falsification 
as  well  as  the  knowledge  of  the  regions,  favorable  to  the  production 
of  the  most  staple  and  serviceable  articles  of  trade,  properly  belongs 
to  the  most  useful  and  practical  knowledge  obtainable.  With  the 
present  tendency  In  the  direction  of  broadening  the  scope  of  the 
course  of  study  in  our  practical  training  schools,  the  important  bear- 
ing, which  a  general  knowledge  of  wares  has  in  qualifying  persons 
for  mercantile  life,  appears  to  make  it  both  timely  and  appropriate 
that  the  subject  receive  merited  attention  by  the  more  practically  in- 
clined institutions  of  learning  of  this  country.  It  is  due  to  the  lack 
of  a  text-book,  treating  upon  the  knowledge  of  wares,  that  we  may 
properly  ascribe  our  deficiency  in  matters  pertaining  to  the  origin 
and  quality  of  wares,  and  it  is  in  this  particular  especially  that  we 
display  our  inferiority  to  the  foreign  merchant  and  consumer  who 
has  recourse  to  text-books  upon  the  subject,  and  in  addition  the 
valuable  special  training  afforded  by  the  practical  institutions  of 
learning  in  Europe. 

The  design  of  this  book  is  to  furnish  the  material  by  which  a  sys- 
tematic course  of  class  lectures  may  be  given  to  students;  while  the 
latter  may  use  the  work  as  a  book  of  reference.  In  connection  with 
the  lectures,  a  cabinet  of  wares,  containing  the  articles  mentioned 
in  the  work,  may  easily  be  prepared,  with  a  view  to  furnish  enter- 
taining and  instructive  object  lessons. 

The  introduction  should  be  studied  most  carefully  and  exhaus- 
tively, as  in  it  are  embodied  the  essentials  upon  which  a  true  knowl- 
edge of  wares  is  based.  The  auxiliary  sciences,  namely  Physics 
and  Chemistry,  may  be  pursued  preparatorily  to  the  study  of  wares, 
though  a  more  detailed  knowledge  of  these  sciences,  than  is  herein 
contained,  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

This  being  the  first  attempt  at  the  production  of  a  book  upon  this 
subject  in  America,  we  hope  that  the  work  may  be  kindly  received 
by  the  practical  educators  throughout  the  country,  and  that  they 
may  bestow  upon'  it  such  friendly  criticism  as  they  may  deem  ex- 
pedient for  its  improvement  and  perfection  in  future  editions. 

RUDOLPH  O.  STOLL, 
'  S.  EMIL  SWANBECK. 


INTRODUCTION. 


WARES. 

IMPORTANCE    OF    THE    KNOWLEDGE. 

A  knowledge  of  wares  (articles  of  trade)  is  not 
only  needed  by  the  merchant,  but  also  by  all  those 
who  are  occupied  with  the  collecting,  improving,  and 
manufacturing  of  the  several  wares, — and,  not  least, 
by  the  consumer.  To  the  merchant,  whose  busi- 
ness it  is  to  deal  in  a  variety  of  articles,  familiarity 
with  the  goods  he  handles  is  necessary,  not  only  as 
to  their  exterior  qualities,  but  also  as  to  their  origin, 
regions  favorable  to  their  production,  distinguishing 
features  of  quality,  manner  of  preserving,  imitating, 
use,  etc.  All  this  is  embodied  in  a  general  knowledge 
of  -wares. 

THEIR   CLASSIFICATION. 

All  wares  can  be  classified  into  two  principal 
classes,  namely,  raw  materials,  or  natural  products, 
and  artificial  products,  or  manufactured  raw  mate- 
rials. As  here  applied,  by  raw  materials  we  mean 
the  products  that  come  into  the  market  in  their 
natural  condition;  these  are  comparatively  few,  as 
the  greater  portion  before  being  sent  out  into  trade 
are  subjected  to  more  or  less  labor  in  order  to  add  to 


8  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

their  durability ;  e.  g.,  salting,  drying,  reduction  by 
boiling,  cleaning,  assorting,  etc. 

Semi-manufactures,  though  they  have  undergone 
a  degree  of  preparation,  are  still  to  be  considered 
raw  materials.  Artificial  products  are  such  original 
raw  materials  as,  by  handiwork  or  machinery,  have 
become  so  changed  as  to  appear  in  a  new  or  con- 
siderably altered  form  when  compared  with  the 
original  raw  materials;  these  products  can  be 
divided  into  manufactures  (mechanical  products), 
chemicals  (drugs),  fabrics  (mechanical-chemical  prod- 
ucts). 

To  continue  this  classification  in  describing  wares 
is  very  difficult,  almost  impossible,  as  new  manu- 
factures with  names  originated  by  the  manufacturer 
constantly  appear,  and  because  of  the  great  variety 
of  ingredients  that  enter  into  the  composition  of 
wares.  For  these  reasons,  this  general  knowledge 
of  wares  is  classified  in  accordance  with  the  natural 
kingdoms  from  which  the  different  wares  are 
obtained,  namely,  the  vegetable,  animal,  and  min- 
eral kingdoms.  This  classification,  being  more 
natural,  is  preferably  employed,  as  the  teachings  of 
the  natural  kingdoms  disclosed  in  botany,  zoology, 
and  mineralogy  constitute  auxiliary  sciences  to  the 
real  basis  of  a  true  knowledge  of  wares. 

THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS. 

The  characteristics  peculiar  to  the  raw  materials 
are  form,  surface,  cohesion,  specific  weight,  luster, 
color,  transparency,  odor  and  taste,  in  addition  to 
their  microscopic  and  chemical  properties. 

PLANT    FORMS. 

The  forms  of  the  productions  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom are  various,  and  only  the  important  parts  of 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WAKES.  9 

the  matured  plant  are  here  considered,  to  the 
extent  requisite  to  the  knowledge  of  wares. 

The  root-stem  is  that  part  of  the  plant  by  which 
it  is  fastened  to  the  soil ;  attached  to  it  are  the  root- 
lets, i.  e.,  tiny  fibers,  by  which  the  plants  absorb 
nourishment.  The  root-stem  may  continue  to  live  a 
year  or  more,  and  is  therefore  known  as  annual, 
biennial,  or  perennial ;  its  form,  thickness,  and  ten- 
dency may  vary.  What  is  commonly  known  as  root- 
stem  is  not  to  be  confounded  with  the  real  root,  as  it 
is  a  part  of  the  stem,  and  the  tiny  fibers  alone  con- 
stitute the  root  proper. 

The  stem  is  that  part  of  the  plant,  \vhich,  contrary 
to  the  root,  develops  upward  and  from  which  leaves, 
flowers,  and  fruits  grow;  like  the  root,  it  may  have 
various  forms  and  tendencies.  The  following  defini- 
tions will  serve  to  distinguish  between  the  various 
kinds  of  stems: 

The  leaf-stalk  ( trunk  )  is  wood}',  with  well  defined 
marrow,  wood,  and  bark  layers;  it  attains  a  con- 
siderable height  before  it  spreads  out  into  branches; 
e.  g.,  our  common  trees.  The  leaf-stalk  is  thickest 
at  the  root. 

The  palm-stalk  is  an  arborescent,  uniformly  thick 
stem,  which  has  no  delineated  marrow,  wood,  or 
bark  layers,  and  generally  has  its  leaves  and  flow- 
ers at  the  top;  e.  g.,  the  palm  and  fern  of  tropical 
countries. 

The  straw  is  the  name  applied  to  the  stem  of  the 
grass  variety. 

Besides  these  we  have  three  principal  forms  of 
stems,  which  are  commonly,  though  wrongly, 
termed  root ;  they  are  the  onion,  the  tuber,  and  the 
root-stalk. 

The  onion  is  nothing  but  a  stem,  shrunk  together 


10  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

and  closely  covered  with  leaves ;  its  real  roots  are 
the  tiny  fibers  which  proceed  from  its  base. 

The  tuber  is  an  annual,  thickened  portion  of  a 
subterranean  stem,  provided  with  latent  buds  called 
eyes,  from  which  new  plants  ensue  the  succeeding 
year;  e.  g.,  potatoes. 

The  root-stock  is  a  fleshy,  rooting  stem,  either 
wholly  or  partially  subterranean,  often  scaly  with 
a  basis  of  developed  leaves  or  marked  with  the  scars 
of  former  leaves,  and  yearly  producing  new  shoots 
and  roots;  e.  g.,  ginger. 

Leaf-stalk  consists  of  five  different  parts,  lying 
one  above  the  other;  e.  g.,  bark,  bast,  sap-wood, 
pith,  marrow. 

Bark  is  the  partly  dried  exterior  enveloping  the 
trunks  of  trees,  which  by  degrees  peels  off,  at  least 
the  first  layer,  as  it  serves  onl}'  for  an  exterior  pro- 
tection. It  can  often  be  cut  away  without  injuring 
the  tree,  which  is  the  case  with  the  cork-tree. 

Next  to  the  dry  bark  is  a  softer  layer  of  bark,  usu- 
ally of  a  green  color,  which  is  often  rich  in  sap. 
This  layer  frequently  contains  aromatic  and  other 
ingredients  which  make  it  available  partly  as  spice, 
partly  as  medicine;  e.  g.,  cinnamon  and  china-rind. 

Bast,  which  is  made  up  of  a  cellular  texture  filled 
with  sap,  is  most  important  to  the  life  of  the  tree. 
The  sweet  saps,  which  we  obtain  by  tapping 
birch  or  maple,  come  from  the  bast.  If  the  bast  is 
peeled  off,  the  tree  dies. 

Sap-wood  and  pith  lie  next  to  the  bast.  The  sap- 
wood,  which  encloses  the  pith,  is  the  newest  part  of 
the  tree ;  it  is  spongier  than  the  pith  and  decom- 
poses more  readily,  owing  to  the  more  abundant 
presence  of  sap  in  it.  The  pith  is  denser  and  firmer 
than  the  sap-wood,  and  is  therefore  of  a  greater 
value.  Each  year  a  new  layer  of  sap-wood  forms 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  11 

upon  the  last  one,  which  by  degrees  reduces  to  pith, 
thus  forming  yearly  rings  which  reveal  the  age  of 
the  tree. 

The  marrow  includes  the  entire  inner  portion  of 
the  tree  and  frequently  disappears  entirely  in  old 
trees;  e.  g.,  hollow  trees. 

The  leaves,  which  generally  have  a  flat,  extended 
form,  are  important  organs  in  nourishing  the  plant. 
Their  form  and  size  vary  considerably.  Leaves  are 
frequently  much  valued  for  the  ingredients  they  con- 
tain. Some  contain  tannin,  some  ethereal  evapo- 
rating oils,  enclosed  in  separate  cells,  which  emit 
odor. 

All  leaves  contain  a  coloring  principle,  known  as 
leaf-green,  or  chlorophyll. 

The  flowers  constitute  the  highest  development 
of  the  plant  and  contain  the  organs  of  reproduction 
of  plant  life.  On  most  of  the  complete  flowers,  the 
following  parts  may  be  discerned :  calyx,  corolla, 
stamen,  and  pistil. 

The  calyx,  the  exterior  protection  of  the  corolla,  is 
generally  of  a  green  color  and  constitutes,  as  long  as 
the  flower  is  budding,  its  visible  part.  The  caper  and 
the  clove  are  examples  of  the  calyx  with  enclosed 
buds.  A  flower  is  generally  of  a  variety  of  colors 
and  forms.  Usually  both  stamens  and  pistils  are 
found  in  the  center  of  a  flower,  though  either  may 
occur  independently  of  the  other. 

The  stamen,  or  the  male  organ,  consists  of  the  fila- 
ment, anther,  and  pollen.  The  filament  is  the 
thread-like  support  of  the  anther.  The  anther  is 
the  oblong  body  at  the  summit  of  the  filament. 
Within  the  cells  of  the  anther  the  pollen  is  produced, 
a  substance  essential  to  the  fertility  of  the  flower. 

The  pistil,  or  the  female  organ,  also  consists  of 
three  parts ;  the  lowest  part  is  the  germ,  the  middle 


12  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

the  style,  and  the  upper  the  stigma,  which  receives 
the  pollen  and  lets  it  down  through  the  style  to  the 
germ. 

Many  flowers  appear  in  trade  as  medicinal  herbs, 
others  contain  chemicals  for  dyeing  and  aromatic 
ingredients;  e.  g.,  the  sunflower,  saffron. 

The  fruit,  which  is  developed  after  the  conception 
of  the  germ,  is  only  a  repository  to  the  seed,  from 
which  the  new  plant,  at  the  germination,  is  formed. 
In  fact  no  germ  is  bare,  but  all  are  provided  with  a 
covering,  though  it  be  only  a  thin  membrane.  A 
seed  thus  thinly  covered  is  called  a  naked  seed,  but  its 
proper  name  is  caryopsis;  e.  g.,  the  grain  and  fruit 
of  the  grasses.  A  single  seed,  enveloped  by  a  hard, 
indehiscent  shell,  is  termed  nut;  e.  g.,  hazelnut, 
acorn.  If  the  nut  is  enveloped  by  a  sappy  and  fleshy 
substance,  it  is  termed  stone-fruit;  e.  g.,  plum, 
cherry.  If  a  sappy  pulp  imbeds  several  seeds,  it  is 
termed  a  berry.  The  podlike  fruits  of  many  seeds, 
which,  when  ripe,  usually  burst  into  two  valves, 
are  termed  legume  and  silique ;  in  the  former,  the 
seeds  are  in  one  row,  e.g.,  the  bean  and  pea,  and  in 
the  latter  in  two  rows,  e.  g.,  shepherd's  purse. 
Most  of  the  remaining  fruits  are  termed  "capsule," 
and  may  contain  one,  two,  or  more  cells.  An  apple 
is  a  many  celled  capsule  enveloped  by  sappy  flesh. 

ANIMAL    FORMS. 

The  structure  of  the  bodies  of  animals,  as  well 
as  the  parts  of  their  bodies,  are  of  a  vast  variety, 
and  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  animal  forms  and 
parts  is  not  only  very  complicated,  but  unnecessary 
to  a  knowledge  of  wares,  as  the  products  of  the 
animal  kingdom  are  too  commonly  known  and  are 
fewer  than  those  of  the  other  kingdoms. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  13 

MINERAL  FORMS. 

Mineral  bodies  and  many  chemical  products  are 
obtained  and  frequently  occur  in  regular  outlined 
figures  limited  by  smooth  surfaces;  such  a  body  is 
termed  "crystallized"  and  its  parts  crystals.  The 
forms  of  these  crystals  may  be  very  dissimilar,  as 
a  hexahedron,  tetrahedron,  octahedron,  pillar, 
prism,  etc.  All  these  crystals  possess  the  quality 
of  splitting  in  a  certain  direction,  a  circumstance 
that  has  important  bearing  upon  the  elaboration 
of  gem  stones. 

Minerals  having  irregular  outlines  are  termed 
crystalline,  \vhich  has  the  opposite  significance  of 
crystallized;  e.  g.,  spar.  Such  minerals  have  fre- 
quently an  interior  structure  of  crystals.  If  the 
connected  cr3'stals,  both  in  natural  and  artificial  prod- 
ucts, are  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  seen  with 
the  naked  eye,  but  the  whole  mass  appears  homo- 
geneous, the  body  is  termed  solid.  But  if  the  micro- 
scope and  other  expedients  fail  to  reveal  the  slightest 
crystalline  breakage  in  any  of  its  parts,  the  body  is 
termed  shapeless;  e.  g.,  gum,  resin. 

BREAKAGE  OR  FRACTURE. 

When  a  body  is  broken  in  a  direction  in  which  it 
does  not  naturally  split,  the  surfaces  thus  formed 
are  termed  fractures.  The  apparentness  of  the 
fracture  is  dependent  upon  the  irregularity  of  the 
texture  of  the  body  fractured. 

Color,  luster,  and  structure  often  appear  quite 
different  upon  a  fractured  surface  than  upon  an 
outer  surface.  This  is  more  particularly  the  case 
with  minerals,  chemicals  and  art  products;  it  is 
therefore  important  that  a  new  surface  should  be 
produced  when  examining  the  peculiarities  of  such 


14  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

bodies.  In  order  to  properly  distinguish  between 
fractures,  the  following  varieties  are  named  and 
defined : 

Shell-like  fracture,  one  having  elevations  and 
depressions  in  form  like  one-half  of  a  bivalve  shell ;  e. 
g.,  flint,  glass,  rock  candy. 

Rugged  fracture,  one  having  upon  its  surface 
sharp,  irregular  points;  e.  g.,  granite,  loaf  sugar, 
copper  ore. 

Smooth- fracture,  one  which  shows  no  or  but  slight 
elevations  upon  its  surface  ;  e.  g.,  asphalt. 

Splinty  fracture,  one  having  upon  its  surface  small 
splinters  which  still  adhere  at  their  thicker  end;e.  g., 
raw  wax,  Venitian  chalk. 

Earthy  and  hooked  fractures.  Examples  of  such 
fractures  occur  in  common  chalk  and  ductile  metals 
respectively. 

SCRATCHED. 

Many  bodies,  when  reduced  to  a  powder,  reflect 
an  entirely  different  color  from  the  original  solid, 
and  this  difference  may  assist  in  enabling  us  to  ascer- 
tain the  variety  to  which  the  ware  belongs.  In 
order  to  apply  this  test,  a  body  should  be  filed  or 
scratched  ;  the  powder  thus  obtained  and  the  mark 
will  be  found  to  be  of  the  same  color.  When  pliable 
bodies  are  scratched,  though  no  powder  is  obtained, 
the  mark  itself  frequently  appears  lustrous  and  at 
times  peculiarly  colored;  e.  g.,  when  indigo  is 
scratched,  the  mark  appears  copper  colored.  Bodies 
that  will  produce  white  or  colored  marks  when 
applied  to  objects,  are  known  as  writing  materials  ; 
e.  g.,  graphite,  slate,  etc. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  15 

COHESION.    (PHYSICS.) 

Cohesion  is  that  form  of  attraction  by  which  the 
particles  ot  a  body  are  united  throughout  the  mass, 
whether  like  or  unlike. 

A  body  is  solid,  \vhen  its  particles  cannot,  without 
difficulty,  be  displaced,  and  liquid,  when  its  particles 
readily  move  among  themselves.  The  condition  of 
a  body  between  these  can  properly  be  defined  as 
intermediate. 

Liquids  are  either  fluid,  i.  e.,  forming  small  drops 
at  the  edge  when  poured  from  a  vessel,  or  viscid,  i. 
e.,  having  a  ropy  or  glutinous  consistency. 

Solids  possess  a  vast  variety  of  qualities  and  but 
few  of  their  peculiarities  can  here  be  named;  some 
of  these  are  found  united  in  the  same  body.  The 
most  frequently  occurring  qualities  in  bodies  are 
hardness,  softness,  brittleness,  flexibility,  malleabil- 
ity, and  elasticity. 

SPECIFIC  WEIGHT. 

Bodies  of  equal  volume  do  not  always  possess  the 
same  \veight.  The  difference  in  weight  between  two 
bodies  of  the  same  volume  is  designated  as  specific 
weight  or  specific  gravity.  As  a  means  of  comparing 
the  specific  weight  of  bodies,  a  common  standard  is 
adopted,  the  weight  of  which  is  usually  expressed 
by  1.  The  commonly  accepted  standard  for  solids 
and  liquids  is  pure  distilled  water.  The  specific 
weight  of  silver  is  10.5,  that  of  coal  oil  0.84. 

A  specific  weight  is  a  characteristic  feature  of 
many  bodies,  and  is  therefore  of  importance  in  deter- 
mining their  genuineness.  As  bodies  expand  and 
contract  under  the  influence  of  heat  and  cold,  so 
they  vary  in  weight  according  to  their  temperature. 


16 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 


In  trade  63.50°  Fahrenheit  is  commonly  accepted  as 
a  basis  of  calculation. 

The  specific  weight  may  be  determined  in  various 
ways.  The  most  preferable  method,  and  one  which 
can  be  employed  irrespective  of  the  condition  of  the 


HYDROSTATIC   BALANCE. 


HYDROMETER. 


body  (whether  solid,  powdered,  or  liquid,)  is  by  the 
use  of  the  hydrostatic  balance. 

The  hydrometer  is  an  instrument,  designed 
especially  for  determining  the  specific  gravity  of 
liquids,  and  thence  the  strength  of  spirituous  liquors, 
saline  solutions,  etc.  It  is  usually  made  of  glass 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  17 

•with  a  graduated  stem  and  indicates  the  specific 
gravity  of  a  liquid  to  the  depth  to  which  it  sinks 
in  it,  the  zero  point  of  the  scale  marking  the  depth 
to  which  it  sinks  in  the  pure  water. 

OPTICAL    PROPERTIES. 

Optical  properties  are  those  which  derive  their 
origin  from  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  light  and 
the  faculty  of  vision.  Luster,  color,  and  transpar- 
ency are  the  most  conspicuous  of  the  optical  prop- 
erties. 

Luster  is  the  quality  possessed  by  a  body  to  reflect 
the  rays  of  light.  Luster  is  dependent  upon  the 
hardness  and  smoothness  of  a  body. 

The  principal  kinds  of  luster  are:  Metallic, 
adamantine,  vitrious  (glassy),  resinous,  greasy, 
pearly,  and  silky.  With  respect  to  intensity,  luster 
is  characterized  as  splendent,  shining,  glistening,  and 
dull. 

Color  is  the  property  depending  on  the  relations 
of  light  to  the  eye  by  which  individual  and  specific 
differences  are  noticeable  in  the  hues  and  tints  of 
bodies. 

The  metallic  colors  are :  Copper,  golden,  leaden, 
brazen,  silvery,  and  steely. 

There  are  six  principal  colors  (others  being 
shades  and  tints);  they  are:  Gray,  red,  brown, 
blue,  yellow,  and  green.  When  all  the  colors  are 
combined,  white  results  (i.  e.,  the  color  of  snow); 
the  opposite  of  this  is  black  (i.  e.,  the  absence  of 
color). 

GRAY. 

Ash-gray,  color  of  ash. 
Pearl-gray,  a  delicate  blue-gray. 
Steely,  color  of  steel. 


18  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

WHITE. 

Flake,  the  purest  white  lead. 
Paris;  e.  g.,  purified  chalk. 
Milky,  a  bluish  tint. 

RED. 

Scarlet,  a  deep  bright  red  tinged  with  orange  or 
yellow. 

Vermilion,  a  deeper  red  than  scarlet.  (Also 
applied  to  a  coloring  pigment.) 

Crimson,  a  deep  red  tinged  with  blue. 

Flesh  tint,  a  light  red  color  tinged  with  gray  and 
yellow. 

Pink,  a  red  tinged  more  or  less  with  white ;  e.  g., 
rose. 

Purple,  a  deep  red  or  red  and  blue. 

Sanguine,  having  the  color  of  blood  (red). 

Turkey,  a  brilliant  red. 

Cherry,  a  very  dark  red,  tinged  with  much  blue 
and  some  black  and  brown  (the  color  of  ripe  cher- 
ries). 

BLUE. 

Indigo,  the  color  of  indigo. 

Sapphire,  brightest  blue  (the  color  of  a  gem). 

Violet,  dark  blue,  having  a  color  of  red  and  blue 
combined. 

Azure,  the  color  of  the  sky. 

Lavender,  a  pale  purplish  color  more  delicate  than 
lilac;  e.  g.,  lavender  flowers. 

Ultramarine,  a  bright  blue  with  a  slight  tinge  of 
red. 

GREEN. 

Emerald,  the  purest  green. 

Verdigris,  clear  bluish  green ;  e.  g.,  verdigris. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  19 

Olive,  composed  of  olive  and  green  mixed  in  equal 
proportions;  e.  g.,  the  olive. 

YELLOW. 

Lemon,  pure  bright  yellow. 
Orange,  reddish  yellow. 
Straw,  a  delicate  yellow. 

Isabel,  a  faint  yellow  tinged  with  red  and  brown. 
Wax,  a  dull  yellow  resembling  the  color  of  bees- 
wax. 

Amber,  a  clear  light  yellow. 

BROWN. 

Chestnut,  purest  brown;  e.  g.,  a  chestnut. 

Hazel,  of  a  light  brown ;  e.  g.,  a  hazel  nut. 

Auburn,  a  reddish  brown. 

Tan,  a  yellowish  brown. 

The  foregoing,  although  by  no  means  a  complete 
list  of  all  shades  and  colors,  is  designed  to  serve  as  a 
means  in  describing  the  real  color  of  a  ware.  A 
more  accurate  description  being  impossible  ,it  may 
be  said  that  a  certain  color  is  of  a  darker  or  lighter, 
fainter  or  stronger  shade,  as  it  is  approximate  to  a 
certain  color. 

TRANSPARENCY. 

Transparency  is  the  peculiarity  of  bodies  to  let  the 
rays  of  light  through  with  but  slight  obstruction  so 
that  bodies  may  be  distinctly  seen  through  it;  e.  g., 
glass,  mica,  gelatine. 

Translucency  is  the  quality  of  bodies  to  let  some 
light  pass,  but  not  enough  to  enable  us  to  distin- 
guish the  color  and  outlines  of  objects  through  it; 
e.  g  ,  ground  glass,  writing  paper,  etc. 


20  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

*Opacity  is  the  quality  of  a  body  which  apparently 
renders  it  impervious  to  the  light;  e.  g.,  the  metals. 

SENSES  OF  TASTE  AND  SMELL. 

Taste  is  the  sense  by  which  certain  properties  of 
bodies  (called  their  taste,  savor,  and  flavor)  are 
ascertained  by  contact  with  the  organs  of  taste,  and 
is  of  special  value  in  determining  the  variety  and 
quality  of  wares. 

'All  more  or  less  soluble  bodies  have  taste,  and 
therefore  this  sense  admits  of  a  vast  variety;  e.  g., 
slimy  (as  of  gum),  fad  (as  of  flour),  sweet,  sour, 
salty,  oily,  bitter,  burning  (as  of  pepper),  alcoholic, 
aromatic  (as  of  vanilla),  narcotic  (as  of  tobacco), 
etc. 

Moreover  the  camphoric,  garlic,  and  bitter- 
almond  tastes  occur  in  both  vegetable  and  animal 
substances.  In  regard  to  minerals,  it  should  be 
observed  that  only  those  which  are  soluble  have 
taste. 

Smell  is  the  sense  or  faculty  by  which  certain  qual- 
ities of  bodies  are  perceived  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  olfactory  nerves,  and  these  qualities 
are  termed  odors. 

The  odor  of  a  ware  frequently  enables  its  to  deter- 
mine the  variety  to  which  it  belongs.  Hence  the 
sense  of  smell  serves  as  an  important  factor  in  detect- 
ing the  identity  of  wares. 

Wares,  in  the  process  of  decomposition,  frequently 
give  forth  odors  varying  in  intensity,  as  heat,  damp- 
ness, and  other  conditions  prevalent,  hasten  the 
progress. 

*No  object  is  perfectly  transparent  or  entirely  op  .que.  Glass  obstructs 
some  light,  while  gojd-leaf  is  translucent  and  horn  may  be  scraped 
thin  enough  to  be  semi  transparent. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  21 

In  a  general  way,  odors  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  namehr,  fragrant  and  noxious,  though  the 
sense  of  smell  is  not  alike  developed  in  all  individuals, 
as  what  appears  to  be  fragrant  to  the  organs  of 
smell  of  one  person  ma\r  be  decidedly  noxious  to 
another. 

THE  ADAPTABILITY  OF  THE    MICROSCOPE. 

The  microscope  is  a  very  helpful,  but  as  yet  rarely 
employed  expedient  in  examining  wares. 

While  the  simple  loupe  is  found  to  be  very  service- 
able in  the  examination  of  -wares,  the  compound 
microscope  is  of  still  greater  use.  The  value  of  an 
instrument,  which  enlarges  an  object  from  100  to  300 
fold,  is  very  evident,  when  it  is  considered,  how  much 
more  prominent  all  the  tiny  parts  become  by  thus 
reinforcing  the  eye,  and  how  easily  similarities  and 
differences  may  thereby  be  discerned  upon  objects, 
which  the  naked  eye  fails  to  reveal. 

Examining  of  cotton,  wool,  and  linen  fibers  can 
easily  and  accurately  be  accomplished  by  means  of 
the  microscope. 

CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES. 

In  order  to  test  the  purity  and  strength  of  wares, 
chemistry  is  employed,  when  all  of  the  foregoing  expe- 
dients are  in  sufficient.  The  enumeration  and  defining 
of  the  elements  embodied  in  chemistry  can  only  be 
attempted  in  a  \vork  exclusively  devoted  to  this 
science.  The  most  important  applications  of 
chemistry  to  a  knowledge  of  wares  are:  The  chem- 
ical changes  of  vegetable  coloring  matter  in  bodies, 
the  solubility  of  bodies  in  chemical  fluids,  the  influ- 
ence of  heat  upon  bodies. 

Chemical  changes  in  the  coloring  matter  in  bodies 


22  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

are  produced  by  three  compounds,   namely,  acids, 
bases,  neutrals. 

Acids  are  compounds  possessed  of  a  sour  taste, 
and  are  generally  soluble  in  water,  reddening  vegeta- 
ble blue  or  violet  colors.  Insolubles,  lacking  a  sour 
taste,  do  not  possess  this  quality,  as  tumeric,  etc. 

Bases  are  compounds  possessed  of  an  alkaline 
taste,  turning  blue  vegetable  colors  into  green, 
restoring  vegetable  colors,  which  turned  red  by  con- 
tact with  acids,  to  their  original  blue. 

If  a  base  is  combined  with  an  acid,  it  neutralizes 
the  latter  and  forms  salt ;  indissoluble  bases  do  not 
change  vegetable  colors  and  are  tasteless. 

Substances  such  as  soda,  potash,  ammonia,  etc., 
whose  distinguishing  peculiarities  are  solubility  in 
alcohol  and  water,  uniting  with  oils  and  fats  in  the 
production  of  soap,  and  turning  reddened  litmus  to 
blue  are  termed  alkalies. 

Neutrals  are  compounds  which  have  neither  acid 
nor  basic  properties;  being  unable  to  turn  red  lit- 
mus blue  or  blue  litmus  red  ;  e.  g.,  neutral  salts  (  salt 
sulphate  of  iron  or  red  vitriol ). 

In  order  to  determine  the  presence  of  acids  or  alka- 
lies in  wares,  litmus  paper  is  used.  The  latter  is  an 
unsized  paper  saturated  with  blue  litmus  ( vegetable 
color  extracted  from  lichens).  The  litmus  paper  is 
cut  into  small  strips,  and,  in  order  to  make  the  test, 
the  ware  is  touched  to  the  paper ;  in  case  the  latter 
turns  red,  it  is  said  that  the  body  reacts  sour;  if 
brown,  it  reacts  alkaline. 

A  characteristic  of  minor  importance  is  noting 
the  effect  on  a  body,  resulting  from  its  treatment 
with  certain  fluids.  This  test  may  be  applied  by 
immersing  a  ware  in  alcohol,  acid,  water,  or  gas 
which  will  result  in  dissolving  it  partially  or 
entirely. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  23 

The  dissolution  of  substances  is  generally  quiet, 
but  sometimes  accompanied  by  bubbling  of  the 
liquid  known  as  effervescence,  i  e.,  the  disengage- 
ment of  gases,  which  may  occur  with  or  without  a 
peculiar  odor. 

Fire  is  frequently  used  as  an  expedient  in  testing 
wares.  The  test  may  be  made  by  means  of  a  com- 
mon spirit  lamp,  a  furnace,  or  a  like  apparatus.  In 
this  manner  a  ware  may  be  melted,  it  may  be 
charred,  be  reduced  to  ashes,  or  be  discolored  accord- 
ing to  its  nature. 

The  foregoing  tests,  which  are  those  of  quantitative 
analysis  (i.  e.,  determining  upon  the  condition  of 
bodies  and  their  ingredients,)  are  insufficient;  as  in 
some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  qualitative 
analysis,  an  analysis  \vhich  determines  the  amount 
or  quality  of  each  ingredient  of  a  substance  by 
•weight  or  by  volume. 

MANNER    OF    PRESERVING  WARES. 

The  manner  of  storing  or  keeping  of  wares  and 
properly  protecting  them  from  exposure  to  various 
destructive  agencies  of  nature  is  a  very  important 
element  in  a  knowledge  of  wares,  as  is  also  the  man- 
ner of  arresting  decay  or  restoring  wares  to  their 
original  quality. 

One  of  the  most  destructive  influences  upon  organic 
bodies  is  rot,  which  is  decomposition  by  natural 
influences.  The  decayed  parts  of  a  body  are  softer 
than  those  in  a  sound  condition. 

Animal  and  vegetable  matter  pass  into  the  first 
stages  of  decomposition  very  rapidly;  while  the 
former  does  so  directly,  the  latter  passes  through 
a  preliminary  stage  of  fermentation. 


24  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

The  conditions  favorable  to  decay  in  lifeless 
organic  bodies  are  a  degree  of  heat,  moisture,  and 
the  action  of  the  air. 

The  presence  of  moisture  in  bodies  hastens 
decomposition.  It  is  important  that  dry  bodies  be 
kept  in  places  where  there  is  no  likelihood  that 
moisture  can  be  absorbed  by  them,  thus  preventing 
rot  and  the  gathering  of  mould. 

Through  the  action  of  heat  upon  bodies,  contain- 
ing moisture,  they  are  covered  with  a  fine  dust, 
which  gathers  into  threads  and  finally  forms  a  gray- 
ish or  greenish  mould  which  gives  rise  to  a  musty 
odor.  Mould  gradually  penetrates  a  body  in  all 
directions  and  finally  renders  it  entirely  useless. 
When  mould  begins  to  form  on  a  ware,  the  latter 
should  be  cleaned  and  moved  into  a  dr}',  well  ven- 
tilated place. 

The  manner  of  preserving  the  several  wares  will 
be  considered  in  connection  with  their  description  on 
the  following  pages. 


PART  FIRST. 
Products  of  the  Vegetable  Kingdom. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Cereals  and  their  Products. 

a.— CEREALS. 

Cereals  are  the  edible  seeds  obtained  from  grassy 
plants. 

WHEAT. 

•German,  Weizen;    French,  Froment;    Scandinavian,.  Hvete-. 

Wheat  is  a  grain  produced  by  a  cereal  grass  (Trit- 
icum  vulgare)  which  furnishes  a  white  flour,  and 
next  to  rice  it  is  the  grain  most  largely  used  as  an. 
article  of  food. 

The  varieties  of  this  grain  are  numerous,  as  red 
wheat,  white  wheat,  bald  wheat,  bearded  wheat, 
winter  wheat,  summer  wheat,  and  the  like. 

The  United  States  is  the  leading  wheat  producing 
country  in  the  world,  and  furnishes  fully  one- 

•The  first  word  under  each  title  is  German,  the  second  French,  and 
the  third  Scandinavian. 

25 


26  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

quarter  of  the  world's  supply  (upward  of  500,000,- 
000  bushels).  The  rich  soil  and  rigorous  climate  of 
the  northern  half,  particularly  the  north  central 
part,  of  the  United  States  provides  the  best  con- 
ditions for  the  production  of  wheat.  The  Dakotas, 
Minnesota,  and  Illinois  are  the  leading  states  in 
raising  this  grain,  the  average  production  per 
acre  being  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bushels,  while 
in  Russia  and  India,  that  rank  next  to  the  United 
States  in  the  amount  of  their  production,  the  yield 
per  acre  is  barely  one-half  as  great. 

Test  of  Quality. —  There  are  five  grades  of  hard 
wheat,  namely,  No.  1  Hard,  No.  1  Northern,  No.  2 
Northern,  No.  3  Northern,  and  Rejected.  The 
quality  of  wheat  depends  largely  on  the  quantity  of 
fine  flour  which  it  yields ;  No.  1  Hard  yielding  from 
76  to  80  per  cent.  The  characteristics  of  the  latter 
are  hardness,  brittleness,  and  uniformity  in  the 
size  of  its  kernels;  the  filament  which  covers  it  is  of 
a  lustrous  golden  color. 

Continuous  production  of  wheat  upon  the  same 
area  has  a  tendency  to  impair  the  quality  of  the 
product.  For  this  reason  the  grade  No.  1  Hard  can 
be  raised  only  in  the  newer  wheat  producing  regions, 
while  the  best  grade  in  the  older  regions  is  No.  1 
Northern,  which  has  a  kernel  of  lesser  degree  of 
hardness  and  a  duller  color  and  is  lighter  in  weight. 
Numbers  2  and  3  respectively  weigh  still  less,  and 
are  inferior  in  the  characteristics  which  constitute 
grades  No.  1  Hard  and  No.  1  Northern,  being  mixed 
with  other  seeds,  smut  and  blighted  grains.  Wheat 
is  graded  as  Rejected  when  dampness  hascaused  it  to 
sprout  and  rendered  it  unfit  for  grinding  into  flour. 

The  standard  weight  of  wheat  is  sixty  pounds  to 
the  bushel. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  27 

RYE. 

Roggen,     Seigle,    Rog. 

Rye  is  a  grain  yielded  by  a  hardy  cereal  grass 
(Secale  cereale)  closely  allied  to  wheat.  Its  form  is 
that  of  a  roundish  quadrangular  spike.  Its  culti- 
vation does  not  extend  as  far  north  as  that  of  bar- 
ley ;  but  it  grows  in  regions  too  cold  for  wheat  and 
on  soil  too  poor  for  other  grains.  Rye  is  largely 
used  as  breadstuff  especially  in  Europe. 

Test  of  Quality. — The  varieties  of  rye  are  numer- 
ous, though  much  less  so  than  those  of  other 
important  cereals.  Winter  rye  is  most  extensively 
cultivated.  The  grains  of  the  latter  are  oblong, 
heavy,  smooth,  hard,  brittle,  and  of  a  light  brown 
color.  The  weight  of  this  grain  is  usually  placed  at 
fifty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel. 

BARLEY. 

Gerste,  Orge,  Kora. 

Barley  is  a  grain,  grown  on  a  grass  belonging  to 
the  genus  Hordeum.  This  grain  is  capable  of  being 
cultivated  over  a  wider  climatic  range  than  any 
other  grain.  Barley  is  used,  most  largely,  for  malt 
in  the  production  of  beer. 

Test  of  Quality. — The  grains  of  barley  of  a  good 
quality  should  be  oblong,  tapering  at  the  ends,  and 
be  furrowed,  and  of  a  lustrous  light  straw  color. 
Its  standard  weight  is  forty-eight  pounds. 

OATS. 

Hafer,  Avoine,  Hafre. 

The  specie  of  oats  which  is  cultivated  as  a  corn 
plant  has  comparatively  large  spikelets  and  seeds. 

It  is  a  grain  better  suited  to  moist  than  to  dry  and 
to  cold  than  to  warm  climates,  although  it  does  not 


28  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

extend  so  far  north  as  the  coarse  kinds  of  barley. 
The  grain  is  either  used  in  form  of  groats  or  made 
into  meal. 

The  varieties  of  oats  are  very  numerous  and  some 
highlv  esteemed  varieties  are  of  recent  and  well 
known  origin.  It  is  doubtful  if  they  belong  to  more 
than  one  specie ;  but  the  following  are  very  gener- 
ally distinguished  as  species: — Common,  Hungarian, 
Siberian,  Naked,  Chinese,  Short  Oats.  Upwards  of 
500,000,000  bushels  of  this  grain  are  produced  in 
the  United  States  annually. 

• 

DISEASES  OF  CEREALS. 

The  diseases  to  which  cereals  are  subject  are  of 
two  classes,  those  which  owe  their  origin  to  para- 
sitic fungi,  and  those  which  are  caused  by  the  pres- 
ence of  animalculae.  The  principal  diseases  of  the  first 
class  are,  bunt,  rust,  mildew,  ergot,  and  smut,  and 
those  of  the  second  class  are  Hessian  fly,  wheat-fly, 
corn-moth,  and  wireworm. 

MANNER  OF  PRESERVING  CEREALS. 

Cereals  should  be  stored  in  dry,  airy  places,  and 
spread  out  thinly,  or,  when  heaped,  they  should  be 
frequently  turned,  especially  when  heat  and  mois- 
ture tend  to  injure  their  quality  by  germination. 


b.— PRODUCTS  OF  CEREALS. 
MALT. 

Malt  is  prepared  from  barley  and  other  grains  by 
steeping  them  in  water  and  drying  in  a  kiln,  thus 
forcing  germination  until  the  saccharine  principle 
has  been  developed. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  29 

Test  of  Quality. — A  desirable  quality  of  malt  con- 
sists of  a  moderately  developed,  thoroughly  dry, 
amber  colored  germ,  having  a  sweet  taste,  and  a 
strong,  pleasant  odor. 

In  storing  malt,  care  should  be  had  that  the  store- 
room be  dry,  as  malt  readily  absorbs  moisture  and 
thereby  becomes  lumpy  and  musty. 

GROATS  AND  GRITS. 

Groats  is  dried  grain  which  is  hulled  and  then 
broken  or  crushed.  In  high  milling  the  term  is  used 
to  designate  cracked  fragments  larger  than  grits. 
An  example  of  groats  commonly  known  is  pearl 
barley. 

Pearl  barley  is  kernels  of  barley,  ground  so  as  to 
form  small,  round  grains. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  grits,  those  most  frequently 
used  are  crushed  wheat,  crushed  barley,  oat  meal, 
farina,  buckwheat  grits,  and  the  like. 

MEAL  AND  BRAN. 

Meal  is  grain  that  is  coarsely  ground  and  unbolted 
(  unsifted  ) ;  e.  g.,  corn  meal,  wheat  meal,  rye  meal. 

Bran  is  the  crushed  coat  of  the  seeds  of  cereal 
grains,  separated  from  the  flour  or  meal  by  sifting. 

FLOUR. 

Flour  is  the  finely  ground  meal  of  cereals,  especially 
the  finer  part  of  meal,  separated  by  bolting.  Flour 
is  of  various  degrees  of  fineness. 

Wheat  flour  comes  on  the  market  in  four  grades, 
namely,  patent,  straight  grade,  and  two  inferior 
grades.  The  fineness  of  flour  and  the  extent  to  which 
it  is  bolted  determines  its  grade. 

The  unbolted  grade  is  known  as  graham. 


30  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Test  of  Quality. — Wheat  flour,  of  the  best  grades, 
is  of  a  white,  slightly  tinged  with  yellow  color;  its 
taste  is  perceptibly  sweet,  and  it  is  of  a  uniform 
fineness,  free  from  bran.  When  the  color  is  grayish 
or  when  mixed  with  particles  of  different  colors,  the 
flour  is  of  an  inferior  quality.  When  wheat  flour  is 
adulterated  with  chalk  or  lime,  its  condition  can 
easily  be  determined  by  burning  a  quantity  of  it  in 
a  metal  spoon  and  observing  whether  there  are 
unburned  remains. 

Rye  flour  is  produced  both  bolted  and  unbolted  ; 
its  color  is  a  very  delicate  yellowish  brown  when 
bolted. 

Barley  flour  comes  into  the  market  in  various 
grades  of  fineness,  and  is  almost  white  in  color ;  it 
should  be  free  from  black  or  colored  particles.  Its 
taste  must  not  be  sweet. 

Buckwheat  flour  is  of  a  grayish  tint,  and  has  a 
slightly  bitter  taste. 

Manner  of  Storing. — Flour  should  be  stored  in 
dry,  airy  rooms  so  as  to  effectually  avert  destruc- 
tion by  mould  or  insects. 

EXPORTATION. 

The  exportation  of  cereals  from  the  United  States 
in  1892  was  as  follows:  Wheat,  157,280,351  bush- 
els; rye,  12,040,716  bushels;  corn,  75,451,849 
bushels;  barley,  2,800,075  bushels. 

The  exportation  of  flour  for  the  same  year  is  as 
follows:  Oatmeal,  20,907,662  pounds;  rye  flour, 
4,543  barrels;  wheat  flour,  15,196,769  barrels; 
corn  meal,  287,607  barrels. 

MACARONI,  VERMICELLI. 

Vermicelli  is  made  of  the  flour  of  hard  and  small- 
grained  wheat,  formed  into  dough,  and  forced 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  31 

through  small  cylinders  or  pipes  till  it  takes  on  a 
slender,  worm  like  form ;  hence  its  Italian  name. 
When  paste  is  made  in  larger  tubes,  it  is  called  maca- 
roni. 

Safflower,  or  the  yolk  of  the  egg,  is  used  in  coloring 
the  paste.  This  article  of  food  is  produced  in  vari- 
ous forms  and  shapes ;  when  long,  slender  shaped, 
it  is  l^nown  as  macaroni  a  canna ;  when  flat,  as 
tagliarini ;  when  worm-like,  as  vermicelli ;  when 
spiral,  as  macaroni  a  concha;  when  ribbon-shaped, 
as  lasagnette.  A  preparation  similar  to  macaroni 
is  made  in  Germany  and  France,  and  is  known  by 
the  name  of  nudels. 

The  best  quality  of  macaroni  is  translucent. 
Naples,  Genoa,  Bologna,  and  Milan  are  noted  for 
the  production  of  fine  qualities  of  macaroni  and  ver- 
micelli. 

PEAS. 

Erbsen,  Pois,   Arter. 

Peas,  the  seeds  of  the  genus  Pisum,  are  of  many 
varieties,  and  much  cultivated  for  food.  The  peas 
cultivated  for  the  market  are  of  three  colors,  gray, 
green,  and  yellow. 

LENTILS. 

Lfnsea,  Leatilles,   Lias. 

Lentils  are  the  seeds  of  the  genus  Arvum;  it  is 
native  in  England  and  France,  and  is  much  culti- 
vated as  an  article  of  food  in  Europe,  but  it  is  not 
commonly  known  in  this  country. 

BEANS. 

Bohnea,   Feves,  Honor. 

Beans  are  the  names  given  to  genera  Faba  Phase- 
olus.  Among  true  beans  are  the  black-eyed  and 


32  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

China  bean ;  furthermore,  black  Egyptian,  common 
haricot,  kidney  string,  pole,  and  the  lower  bush 
bean.  The  lima  bean  is  a  variety  much  sought 
after  for  its  excellency  as  an  article  of  food ;  it  is  an 
uncommonly  large,  white  bean. 

Test  of  Quality. — Beans  should  have  a  smooth,  shin- 
ing surface,  and  be  well  filled.  Beans  will  not  retain 
their  good  quality  longer  than  one  year. 

RICE. 

Reis,  Ris,  Ris. 

Rice  are  the  peeled  and  dried  seeds  of  the  rice 
plant,  which  is  a  grassy  growth  that  attains  a 
height  of  several  feet,  and  is  cultivated  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  Africa,  Asia,  America,  and  to  a 
very  limited  extent  in  Europe. 

The  production  of  rice  is  practicable  only  in  damp, 
swampy  regions,  which  are  capable  of  being  inun- 
dated. After  having  ripened,  the  plant  is  cut  down, 
and  the  kernels  are  threshed  out  by  treading.  The 
kernels  are  of  an  oval  shape,  covered  by  a  brownish 
hull.  The  dried  kernels,  when  hulless,  are  white  and 
translucent. 

Of  the  several  varieties  of  rice  which  appear  in 
trade,  the  following  are  most  conspicuous:  The 
Egyptian,  having  large  white  kernels;  the  Carolina 
rice. — especially  that  of  South  Carolina,  which  is 
commonly  regarded  as  the  best  in  quality, — closely 
resembles  the  former  variety ;  the  East  India  rice, 
the  better  quality  of  which  approaches  the  Carolina 
rice,  while  the  inferior  grades  are  yellow,  unclean 
and  dusty ;  the  Italian  rice  has  a  shorter  and  thicker 
berry  than  that  of  the  Carolina,  and  is  of  an  excel- 
lent quality.  Broken  rice  and  ground  rice  (rice 
meal)  also  appear  on  the  market. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  33 

Rice,  as  is  commonh'  known,  is  a  superior  article 
of  diet  and  is  particularly  prized  in  Asia  and  Africa. 

Test  of  Qualit}'. — Good  rice  must  befreefrom  odor, 
dust,  and  dampness,  must  be  nearly  tasteless  and 
purely  \vhite. 

Rice  is  sometimes  adulterated  by  mixing  it  with 
pebbles,  mineral  salt,  and  chalk,  though  this  is  easily 
discovered  by  careful  examination.  Old  and  discol- 
ored rice  is  often  restored  to  its  original  whiteness 
by  pouring  chalk  water  over  it. 

The  value  of  rice  exported  from  this  country  dur- 
ing 1891  amounted  to  $33,000;  while  the  value  of 
the  product  imported  amounted  to  $4,559,000  for 
the  same  year. 

MILLET. 

Hirse,     Millet,    Hirs. 

Millet  is  the  product  of  several  cereal  and  forage 
grasses  which  bear  an  abundance  of  small  roundish 
grains,  covered  with  a  gray  or  yellow  shell.  The 
kernel  has  a  sweetish  mealy  taste. 

Millet  is  a  palatable  and  nourishing  food,  though 
it  is  rarely  used  in  this  country. 

MAIZE,    OR  INDIAN    CORN. 

Mais,     Mais,     Mais. 

Maize  are  the  seeds  which  grow  on  the  cobs  of  a 
large  specie  of  American  grass. 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  is  the  leading  food-crop  of 
the  United  States  and,  with  the  manufactures  from 
it,  is  of  great  commercial  value.  This  cereal  requires 
a  warmer  climate  than  wheat,  and  is  therefore 
raised  chiefly  in  the  states  south  of  the  wheat  grow- 
ing belt.  Corn  is  the  chief  food  supply  of  the  people 
of  Central  and  South  America,  as  well  as  the  United 


34  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

States.  Corn  enters  into  the  manufacture  of  alco- 
hol and  alcoholic  liquors,  starch,  and  glucose. 

Cornstarch  is  a  very  common  article  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  extensively  exported. 

The  greater  part  of  the  world's  supply  of  Indian 
corn  is  raised  in  the  United  States.  The  total  pro- 
duction of  corn  in  this  country  has  reached  the 
enormous  quantity  of  1,500,000,000  bushels. 

Grades  and  Varieties. — Indian  corn  is  of  several 
kinds:  yellow  corn,  white  or  Southern  corn,  sweet 
corn,  and  pop  corn. 

Yellow  corn  grows  chiefly  in  the  Northern  states, 
and  is  yellow  when  ripe. 

White  corn  grows  in  the  Southern  states;  it  has 
long  white  kernels. 

Sweet  corn  comprises  a  number  of  sweet  and  ten- 
der varieties,  grown  chiefly  in  the  north,  some  of 
which  have  kernels  which  wrinkle  when  ripe  and  dry. 

Pop  corn  is  a  small  variety  used  for  popping. 

STARCH. 

Starch  is  a  widely  diffused  vegetable  substance, 
found  especially  in  seeds,  bulbs,  and  tubers,  and 
extracted  ( as  from  potatoes,  corn,  rice,  arrow  root, 
etc.,)  as  a  white  glistening  granular  or  powdery  sub- 
stance without  taste  or  smell  and  giving  a  very 
peculiar  creaking  sound  when  rubbed  between  the 
fingers.  Starch  is  contained  in  the  cells  of  plants, 
and  is  easily  extracted  therefrom  by  washing  it  out 
in  water. 

Among  those  domestic  vegetable  products  which 
are  particularly  rich  in  starch,  we  may  mention 
wheat,  which  contains  from  55  to  65  per  cent,  rye 
55  to  60  per  cent,  corn  65  to  70  per  cent,  rice  70  to 
75  per  cent,  potatoes  20  to  25  per  cent.  Of  the  for- 
eign plants  which  yield  starch,  the  most  useful  are 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  35 

the  sago  palm,  the  manioc  plant,  and  the  arrow 
root.  The  starch  of  these  plants  is  used  exclusively 
as  an  article  of  diet,  while  the  wheat,  potato,  and 
rice  starch  is  better  adapted  to  manufacturing  pur- 
poses. 

The  process  of  producing  starch  from  potatoes  is 
very  simple,  and  consists  chiefly  in  washing  the  pota- 
toes and  filtering  the  mash  through  sieves  and  sepa- 
rating the  starch  therefrom  by  a  continued  flow  of 
water,  until  the  latter  is  no  longer  milky. 

A  sediment  forms  at  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  in 
which  the  milky  water  is  contained,  \vhen  undis- 
turbed; this  sediment  is  spread  out  upon  linen,  and 
dried  at  a  temperature  of  from  100°  to  120°  F.,  and 
thus  fully  developes  into  starch,  ready  for  the  mar- 
ket. A  similar  process  is  employed  in  extracting 
starch  from  wheat,  maize,  and  rice. 

Corn  starch  is  most  largely  used  in  the  United 
States,  and  is  an  excellent  article  of  diet.  The 
Kingsford  factory  of  Oswego,  New  York,  produces 
25,000,000  pounds  of  this  variety  of  starch  annu- 
ally. 

Rice  starch  is  manufactured  chiefly  in  Holland  and 
England,  and  is  used  to  starch  fine  materials,  as 
laces. 

Potato  starch  may  be  distinguished  from  wheat 
starch  by  the  size  of  its  granules;  those  of 
potato  starch  being  larger  than  the  granules  of 
wheat  starch;  while  the  granules  of  arrow  root 
and  rice  starch  cannot  be  distinguished,  unless  exam- 
ined by  means  of  the  microscope. 

Arrow  root  is  a  starch,  produced  from  a  root 
which  grows  in  Jamaica  and  Bermuda,  and  islargely 
used  as  an  article  of  diet  for  children.  The  quality 
of  the  arrow  root,  produced  in  the  West  Indies  is 
superior  to  the  East  India  arrow  root. 


36  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

SAGO. 

Sago  is  a  dry,  granulated  starch,  imported  from 
the  East  Indies,  much  used  in  making  puddings, 
and  as  an  article  of  diet  for  the  sick;  also  as  a  starch 
for  stiffening  textile  fabrics.  It  is  prepared  from 
the  stems  of  several  East  Indian  and  Malayan  palm 
trees,  but  chiefly  from  the  Metroxylar  sago. 

The  preparation  of  sago  is  simple.  When  the  tree 
is  almost  full  grown,  the  whole  stem  is  filled  with  a 
soft,  spongy  marrow,  which,  after  splitting  the  tree, 
is  taken  out  and  stirred  in  water,  until  it  forms  a 
mass  which  may  be  separated  from  the  vegetable 
fiber  by  filtering. 

The  starch  which  is  thus  mixed  with  water,  soon 
settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  in  which  it  is  con- 
tained, and  forms  a  paste  from  which  crops  are 
formed  by  straining  through  sieves,  provided  with 
round  holes.  It  is  then  dried.  A  single  trunk  often 
yields  600  pounds  of  sago. 

The  sago  on  the  market  is  of  two  kinds,  brown 
and  white.  The  former  is  a  cheaper  quality,  which 
receives  its  color  by  being  tinted  with  burnt  sugar. 
The  white  sago  occurs  in  regular  grains  and  clus- 
ters. 

An  East  Indian  variety  is  pearl  sago,  which  is 
manufactured  in  Singapore,  and  consists  of  small 
round  grains. 

Test  of  Quality. — Good  sago  must  be  very  dry, 
free  from  dust  and  odor,  and  be  tasteless.  This  ware 
is  rarely  entirely  free  from  a  musty  odor. 

Tapioca  and  cassava  are  products  similar  to  sago. 
They  are  produced  from  the  root  of  the  manioc 
plant.  Tapioca  is  dried  on  hot  iron  plates,  while 
cassava  is  dried  in  the  air.  Rio  tapioca  is  white, 
and  Bahia  tapioca  is  of  a  brown  color.  The  fine 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  37 

tapioca  is  produced  from  potato-starch  in  exact 
imitation  of  the  genuine  article. 

COFFEE. 

Kaffe,    Cute,    Kaffe. 

Coffee  is  the  kernel  taken  from  the  berry  of  the  coffee 
tree  (Coffea  arabica),  a  growth  of  the  family  of  the 
Rubiaceae.  It  is  a  small  tree  from  twelve  to  thirty 
feet  in  height,  with  dark  green  leaves.  The  blos- 
soms, which  are  white,  are  clustered  around  a  short 
stem.  The  fruit  is  a  red  berry,  containing  two  seeds 
enveloped  in  a  hull.  The  leaves  and  seed  contain  a 
poisonous  matter  called  caffeine. 

The  native  country  of  the  coffee  tree  is  Upper 
Ethiopia,  whence  it  was  first  taken  to  Arabia,  East 
and  West  India,  Bourbon,  Mauritus,  and  finally  to 
Brazil.  It  thrives  best  in  a  stony  soil,  and  bears 
blossoms  and  fruit  at  the  same  time. 

The  method  of  gathering  this  fruit  is  unlike  in 
various  countries  where  it  is  produced.  In  Arabia 
the  berries  are  shaken ,  and  in  West  India  plucked ,  from 
the  tree.  The  harvest  takes  place  in  May  and 
December;  a  tree  yields  its  principal  product  in  May, 
namely,  from  two  to  four  pounds  of  beans.  The  fruit 
is  then  dried  and  freed  from  its  hull  and  sent  out 
into  trade. 

Dependent  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  cli- 
mate, as  well  as  the  care  had  in  its  treatment  when 
ripening,  and  manner  of  gathering  the  fruit,  coffee 
varies  in  color,  form,  and  sizes  of  its  beans.  Coffee 
is  of  various  colors,  principally  brown,  yellow,  and 
green,  and  of  all  shades  of  these  colors.  Continued 
storage  causes  the  green  and  blue  varieties  to 
become  more  or  less  bleached. 


38  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Coffee  is  frequently  artificially  colored  by  means  of 
ochre  or  by  using  coal  dnst  mixed  with  indigo.  In 
order  to  enlarge  the  size  of  the  bean,  coffee  is  often 
steamed  and  then  dried. 

The  best  test  of  quality  is  the  pure  odor  and  taste 
of  coffee,  as  \vell  as  uniformity  in  the  size  of  the 
beans;  broken  and  black  beans  are  evidences  of 
inferiority  in  quality.  Without  regard  to  its  out- 
ward appearance,  the  best  manner  of  determining 
the  good  quality  of  coffee  is  by  its  odor  when  roast- 
ing, and  also  by  the  uniformity  of  its  color  when 
thoroughly  roasted. 

Coffee  should  not  be  stored  near  articles  which 
emit  a  strong  odor,  but  requires  no  attention  when 
kept  in  a  dry  place.  Coffee  is  shipped  in  jute  bags  or 
matting  of  various  materials,  containing  from  100 
to  150  pounds,  or  in  barrels  which  contain  from  800 
to  1,000  pounds. 

The  following  varieties  appear  on  the  market : 

1.  Mocha.  This  is  the  best  variety;   its  odor  and 
flavoris  not  reached  by  any  other  kind,  and  itis  there- 
fore dearest.     It  is  composed  of  small,  hard,  compact 
beans  of  a  very  light  yellow  color,   slightly  tinged 
with  green. 

Mocha  is  exported  in  but  very  small  quantities. 

2.  Bourbon  coffee  (  from  Reunion  )  is  regarded  as 
being  next  to   Mocha  in   quality.        Its   beans  are 
nearly  the  same  as  the  latter  in  form  and  color. 

3.  After  Mocha  and  Bourbon,  the  best  varieties  of 
coffee  are  produced  in  Java,  Ceylon,  and  on  the  main 
land  of  India. 

Java  produces  brown,  yellow,  bluish-green,  and 
light  green  varieties.  The  brown  and  light  yellow 
beans  are  considered,  as  being  possessed  of  the  fin- 
est flavor.  The  best  variety  produced  on  Ceylon,  is 
known  as  plantation  coffee,  while  the  inferior  grades 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  39 

are  designated  as  Native.  Menado  coffee  is  the  prod- 
uct of  the  island  Celebes.  It  is  usually  of  a  yellow 
color  and  a  strong  aromatic  flavor. 

4.  Of  the  South  American  and  West  Indian  varie- 
ties, the  best  are:  Laguayra,  Puerto,  Cabello,  Mar- 
acaibo,  Ecuador,  Nicaragua,  Mexico,  Porto  Rico, 
Hayti,  Jamaica. 

Brazil  produces  coffee  most  largely.  Of  the  various 
kinds  produced  in  this  country,  Rio  has  a  pure  and 
palatable  taste.  It  is  most  largely  used  in  the  United 
States.  Next  to  this  is  the  variety  known  as  Lantos 
Campinos,  which  approaches  the  better  grades  of 
coffee.  Bahia  and  Clara  are  inferior  grades,  grown 
in  Brazil. 

The  beans,  which  are  separated  from  the  various 
grades  of  coffee  as  inferior,  are  the  pearl  coffee,  a 
small  round  variety,  and  Triage,  black  broken 
beans,  \vhich  are  roasted  and  ground,  and  are  sold 
in  this  form. 

The  importation  of  coffee  into  the  United  States  is 
500,000,000  pounds  per  year,  being  larger  than 
that  of  any  other  country. 

The  total  consumption  of  coffee  in  the  United  States 
is  about  nine  pounds  per  capita.  The  total  value  of 
the  imported  product  amounted  to  $128,041,000  in 
1892. 

Coffee  is  not  grown  in  this  country. 

COCOA. 

Kacao,  Caccao,  Cacao. 

Cocoa  is  an  evergreen  tree  of  South  America  and 
the  West  Indies.  It  is  of  moderate  size,  with  large 
undivided  leaves,  and  clustered  flowers.  It  generally 
rises  to  the  height  of  from  sixteen  to  twenty  feet, 
although  it  is  sometimes  twice  that  height.  Its 


40  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

fruit  is  somewhat  like  a  cucumber  in  shape,  and  is 
six  or  eight  inches  long.  Its  color  is  yellow,  though 
it  has  a  reddish  hue  on  the  side  turned  toward 
the  sun;  the  rind  is  thick  and  warty,  the  pulp 
sweetish  and  pleasant  to  the  taste;  the  seeds  are  num- 
erous, well  compressed,  and  almost  like  almonds, 
with  a  thin,  pale,  reddish-brown,  fragile  skin  or 
shell,  covering  a  dark  brown,  oily,  and  aromatic, 
kernel,  \vhich  consists  mostly  of  the  wrinkled  coty- 
ledons. These  seeds  are  the  cocoa  beans  of  com- 
merce. The  cocoa  tree  produces  larger  seeds  in  a 
cultivated  than  a  wild  state.  The  tree  attains  its- 
full  vigor  and  productiveness  in  seven  or  eight  years, 
and  generally  yields  two  principal  crops  in  a  year. 
When  gathered,  the  fruit  is  subjected  to  five  days'  fer- 
mentation in  earthen  vessels  or  in  heaps.  It  is  then 
opened  by  hand,  and  the  seeds  dried  in  the  sun, 
or  by  being  buried  for  a  time  in  the  earth,  until  the 
pulp  rots.  The  latter  method  is  said  to  produce  the 
best  cocoa. 

Cocoa  is  very  nutritious.  The  principal  constit- 
uent of  cocoa  beans  is  the  soft  condensed  oil,  called 
cocoa  butter,  which  forms  more  than  50  percent  of 
the  shelled  bean,  about  22  per  cent  being  starch, 
gum,  etc.,  and  17  per  cent  being  gluten  and  albumen. 
It  also  contains  a  crystallized  principle  called  "theo- 
bromine." 

The  best  variety  is  the  Soconuso  Cocoa  (Guata- 
mala).  It  has  a  thin  shell,  a  small  gold-brown  bean, 
and  is  very  sweet,  and  of  an  excellent  flavor. 
Oaxaca  Cocoa  (Mexico)  is  next  in  quality.  Car- 
acas Cocoa,  from  Venezuela,  has  beans  which  are 
irregular  in  size  and  egg  shaped  in  form,  covered 
with  a  thick,  rough  skin  of  brown  color,  and  has  a 
pleasant  though  slightly  bitter  taste.  The  follow- 
ing varieties  are  produced  in  Brazil:  Maranhan, 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  41 

Para,  and  Bahia.  The  first  two  varieties  are  rich 
in  fat,  while  the  latter  has  a  small,  dark  dry 
bean.  Martinique  and  Trinidad  furnish  excellent 
cocoa;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  cocoa  furnished 
by  Ceylon. 

Test  of  Quality. — The  best  test  is  the  odor  and  taste 
of  cocoa.  It  should  be  observed  that  the  beans  are 
free  from  mildew  and  not  too  dark  in  color. 

Good  chocolate  must  show  a  fine,  shining  grain 
when  broken,  be  of  a  dark  color  though  not  black, 
and  be  possessed  of  an  aroma.  It  must  melt  readily 
when  heated.  Chocolate  is  frequently  adulterated 
by  adding  starch  or  flour.  Chocolate  is  largely 
manufactured  in  the  New  England  states,  though 
large  quantities  are  imported. 

ALMONDS. 

Mandeln,  Amandes,  Mandcl. 

Almonds  are  the  fruits  of  the  common  almond  tree. 
The  latter  bears  great  similarity  to  the  peach  tree 
and  is  rarely  very  large.  Its  blossoms  issue  from  the 
buds  separately. 

The  fruit  is  of  an  oval  shape,  and  has  a  felt-like 
covering.  Its  kernel  is  dry  when  ripe. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  the  almond  tree,  one 
producing  the  bitter,  and  the  other  the  sweet 
almond. 

Sweet  almonds  usually  appear  on  the  market  in 
an  unshelled  condition.  They  are  brought  from 
Spain,  Italy,  France,  and  Portugal.  The  best  varie- 
ties are  the  Valencia  and  the  Malaga.  The  Sicilian 
and  Provincial  are  inferior  varieties.  The  poor- 
est variety,  called  Barbarice,  is  produced  in  the 
Barbary  States.  A  variety  of  soft  and  brittle  shelled 
almonds  come  from  Marseilles.  These  are  most 
highly  prized  when  large  and  very  thin  shelled. 


42  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

The  bitter  almond  is  more  pointed  and  somewhat 
smaller  than  the  sweet  varieties,  and  can  be  distin- 
guished from  the  latter  by  its  bitter  taste.  When 
distilled  with  water,  bitter  almonds  produce  what 
is  known  as  bitter  almond  oil,  which  is  much  used 
in  manufacturing  perfume. 

Both  varieties  of  almonds  are  very  rich  in  fatty 
oil,  which  is  yielded  by  pressing  it  out  of  the  fruit. 

RAISINS  AND  CURRANTS. 

RoKenen,  Koriathen,  Raisins,  Russen. 

The  dried  berries  of  the  grape  vine  are  known  in 
trade  as  raisins  and  currants;  the  latter  are  pro- 
duced from  a  dwarfed  grape  vine,  which  bears  small 
fruit.  These  fruits  areproduced  in  Southern  Europe, 
Asia,  and  in  California.  They  are  either  picked  and 
dried  or  allowed  to  remain  on  the  stalk  until  dry, 
and  then  brought  on  the  market  with  or  without 
stems. 

The  colors  of  the  numerous  varieties  of  raisins  are 
varied,  including  all  shades  from  a  deep  black  to 
violet,  yellow  and  red.  Several  kinds  have  a  num- 
ber of  seeds,  while  others  are  entirely  seedless.  The 
quality  of  raisins  is  determined  by  their  sweetness, 
dryness,  and  sizeofthe  berry.  They  should  be  stored 
in  a  perfectly  dry  place,  as  raisins  are  naturally 
inclined  to  ferment  when  this  precaution  is  not 
taken. 

Among  the  countries  which  produce  raisins  for  the 
market,  the  following  furnish  the  best  varieties: 

Smyrna.  The  raisins  produced  in  this  country  are 
of  an  excellent  quality,  being  large,  well  developed, 
and  possessing  a  light  brown  color. 

Damascus,  or  Sultania,  raisins  are  small,  sweet,  and 
seedless. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  4-3 

Sam os  furnishes  an  inferior  variety  of  a  black  color 
designated  as  Muscatel. 

Spain  produces  several  fine  varieties,  particularly 
the  Malaga  and  Valencia,  which  are  noted  for  their 
fine  flavor.  These  varieties  are  largely  used  in  the 
United  States. 

Currants,  wineberries,  and  small  raisins  are  pro- 
duced in  Morea,  the  Grecian  islands,  and  Sicely. 

FIGS. 

Feigen,    Figves,    Fikoa. 

Figs  (as  commonly  known)  are  the  dried  fruits  of 
the  fig  tree.  In  Europe  their  cultivation  is  confined 
principally  to  Italy,  Southern  France,  Spain,  and 
Greece.  The  ripe  fruit  contains  countless  small 
seeds.  The  excellence  of  figs  is  determined  by  their 
freshness,  size,  taste,  softness,  and  color.  Good  figs 
should  not  be  coated  on  the  outside.  The  white 
coating,  which  appears  on  the  outer  surface  of  old 
figs,  is  grape  sugar. 

The  best  figs  are  the  product  of  Smyrna,  they  are 
large,  yellow,  round,  pressed  flat,  placed  in  boxes, 
and  covered  with  laurel  leaves.  The  Grecian, 
Italian,  and  French  (Marseilles)  figs  are  among  the 
best  known  varieties  which  appear  on  the  markets 
of  Europe  and  America. 

DATES. 

Dates  are  the  single  seeded  fruit  of  the  date  palm, 
which  is  cultivated  particularly  in  North  Africa, 
Arabia,  Assyria. 

The  date  is  oval,  and  red,  brown  or  black  in  color, 
has  a  leathery  skin,  and  a  very  sugary  fruit-flesh, 
and  a  long,  round  seed.  The  Alexandria  date  is 


44  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

regarded  as  the  best ;   the  inferior  kinds  are  darker,, 
drier,  and  less  sweet. 

PRUNES. 

Z\vetschen,    Prune,    Sviskoa. 

The  name  prunes  is  applied  to  several  varieties  of 
dried  plums  which  appear  on  the  market.     Prunes 
are  produced  principally  in  Germany,  France,  Italy, 
California,  Spain,  and   Turkey. 

The  common  Turkish  variety  is  usually  small,  dry, 
and  tin-uniform  in  color.  They  are  brought  on  the 
market  in  hogsheads  containing  several  hundred 
pounds  or  more. 

The  French  prunes  area  large,  dark  purple  plum  of 
oval  shape,  often  one-sided.  They  are  much  used 
for  preserving  either  dried  or  in  syrup,  and  are 
packed  into  small  boxes.  The  same  description 
applies  to  the  well  assorted  prunes  which  are  pro- 
duced in  other  countries. 

Prunelles  are  the  product  of  French  prunes,  which 
are  peeled  and  cut  into  long  round  strips,  and  are 
then  packed  into  boxes  lined  with  paper. 

PISTACHIO    NUTS. 

The  nuts  of  the  tree  Pistacia  vera  contain  a  kernel 
of  a  pale  greenish  color,  which  has  a  pleasant  taste, 
resembling  that  of  the  almond,  and  yields  an  oil  of 
an  agreeable  flavor  and  odor.  It  is  wholesome  and 
nutritive.  The  tree  grows  in  Arabia,  Assyria,  Persia, 
and  Sicely. 

Pistachio  nuts  are  used  for  the  same  purpose  as 
the  almond,  namely,  for  confectionery.  The  oil, 
which  can  be  pressed  from  the  nut,  is  highly  prized. 
The  pistachio  nut  is  but  little  known  and  used  in 
this  country. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  45 

CHESTNUTS 

Ka.sta.nien,    Chataigues,    Ca.sta.nier, 

Are  the  product  of  the  real  chestnut  tree,  which 
grows  wild  in  the  higher  regions  in  Greece,  Italy, 
Spain,  and  Southern  France,  and  is  cultivated  in 
the  warmer  regions  of  the  United  States.  The  trunk 
of  the  chestnut  tree  is  thick  and  high.  Its  leaves 
are  lance  shaped,  and  have  a  glossy  surface.  The 
nut  is  covered  by  a  thin  shell  of  a  brown  color, 
flat  on  one  side,  and  concave  on  the  other,  though 
there  is  an  American  variety  which  has  two  concave 
sides. 

The  fruit  falls  in  October.  It  is  then  gathered  and 
dried  in  the  sun,  or  immersed  in  hot  water  to  prevent 
its  germination,  which  otherwise  takes  place  very 
soon  after  being  gathered,  and  causes  the  nut  to 
decay. 

Chestnuts  of  superior  excellence  come  from  Prov- 
ence, France;  though  they  are  most  largely  pro- 
duced in  Tyrol,  Northern  France,  and  the  Rhine 
regions. 

The  most  dangerous  enemies  of  the  chestnut  are 
insects  and  rodents. 

NUTS 

Is  the  designation  for  a  large  variety  of  fruit 
kernels. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  varieties: 

The  Brazil  nut  is  an  oily,  three-sided  nut  which 
grows  in  Brazil. 

The  filbert  is  an  oval  nut  that  has  a  mild,  oily, 
and  farinaceous  taste  agreeable  to  the  palate.  The 
American  filberts  (hazel-nuts)  are  of  two  species. 
One  of  these  species  grows  wild  in  the  forest. 


46  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Walnuts  are  of  seven  or  eight  species,  which  grow 
in  the  north  temperate  zone.  The  English  walnut 
is  much  prized  for  its  excellent  quality,  while  the 
North  American  hickory  nut,  a  species  of  this  variety, 
is  regarded  as  the  best. 

Pecans  are  smooth,  oblong  nuts  which  grow  on 
a  specie  of  the  hickory,  and  are  an  inch  or  an  inch  and 
one  half  long,  with  a  thin  shell,  and  well  flavored 
meat.  The  nut  is  produced  chiefly  in  the  Mississippi 
valley  and  Texas. 

Peanuts  or  earthnuts  are  the  tubers  of  certain 
umbelliferous  plants,  which  grow  largely  in  the 
Southern  states  and  in  the  warmer  countries  of 
Europe,  and  yield  an  excellent  oil.  The  peanut  is 
largely  consumed  in  this  country,  and  is  especially 
pleasant  to  the  taste  when  well  roasted. 

COCOA  NUTS, 

The  well  known  fruit  of  a  specie  of  the  palm.  The 
nuts  or  fruits  are,  when  ripe,  from  four  to  eight 
inches  in  diameter  and  are  covered  with  a  thick, 
brown  shell,  possessing  three  scars,  one  of  which  can 
be  easily  pierced,  and  the  milk,  which  the  nut  con- 
tains, can  be  readily  poured  from  the  opening.  The 
shell  is  lined  on  the  inside  with  a  thick,  white  ker- 
nel, and  the  remaining  space,  within  the  nut,  is  filled 
with  a  sweet,  milky  fluid. 

Cocoa  nuts  are  produced  largely  in  Spain,  South 
America,  and  Africa.  The  best  of  these  fruits  are 
yielded  in  Spain.  This  variety  is  considerably  smaller 
than  the  South  American  product. 

These  nuts  are  much  used  as  an  article  of  food,  and 
the  kernel  appears  in  trade  dried,  and  can  thus  be 
preserved  a  long  time,  for  use  by  bakers  and  confec- 
tioners. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  47 

DRIED   FRUITS. 

Among  the  fruits  which  are  dried  and  sent  upon 
the  market  in  this  condition  are  apples,  pears,  peaches, 
cherries,  and  apricots. 

Apples  are  dried  or  evaporated  by  means  of  artifi- 
cial heat.  To  prepare  apples  for  drying,  the  peel  is 
removed,  and  the  fruit  is  quartered  or  sliced  and 
sometimes  cored.  The  better  qualities  of  evapo- 
rated apples  are  very  carefully  sliced  and  slowly 
dried,  and  appear  \vhiter  than  the  common  varieties. 
They  come  into  trade  pressed  into  boxes. 

Pears  are  dried  similarly  to  apples,  though  usually 
the  fruit  is  neither  peeled  nor  sliced,  but  dried  whole. 
The  imported  "German  Dried  Pears"  are  preferred 
to  other  varieties. 

Peaches  and  apricots  are  largely  dried  in  the 
United  States,  and  appear  on  the  market  in  varied 
forms  and  qualities. 

Strawberries,  blackberries,  and  raspberries  appear 
in  trade  in  a  dried  form. 

MIXED    PICKLES 

Belong  to  preserved  fruits,  and  are  a  mixture  mostly 
of  unripe  fruits  and  plants,  as  young  corn  cobs, 
small  cucumbers,  green  beans,  cauliflowers,  aspara- 
gus, mushrooms,  onions,  etc.  All  -these  ingredients, 
together  with  several  spices,  are  preserved  in  strong 
vinegar.  Mixed  pickles  are  found  in  the  market  in 
small  bottles.  The  common  pickles  are  a  small 
variety  of  cucumbers  preserved  in  vinegar,  and  are 
brought  into  the  market  in  barrels. 

CANNED   GOODS 

Include  a  variety  of  fruits  and  parts  of  plants  so 
preserved  as  to  retain  their  original  flavor  and 


48  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

freshness  for  a  length  of  time.  Canned  goods  are 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  namely,  canned 
vegetables  and  canned  fruits. 

Among  the  commonest  varieties  of  canned  vege- 
tables are,  canned  beans,  corn,  peas,  asparagus, 
sweet  potatoes.  The  method  of  preservation  is 
founded  upon  the  idea  of  the  entire  exclusion  of  the 
air,  so  that  the  latter  cannot  have  the  least  effect 
upon  the  article  preserved.  This  is  done  by  placing 
the  fruit  in  tightly  sealed  tin  or  glass  cans,  and  then 
immersing  the  latter  in  \vater,  heated  to  the  boiling 
point.  Some  vegetables  must  be  scalded  before 
being  placed  in  cans. 

Nearly  all  kinds  of  fruits  and  berries  are  canned  or 
preserved  in  sugar.  The  manner  of  preserving  is  by 
covering  the  fruit  with  a  syrup  prepared  from  sugar 
and  water. 

LEMONS   AND   ORANGES. 

German,  Zitronen  and  Orangcn;     French,  Citrons  and  Oranges. 

Lemons  and  oranges  are  the  fruits  of  the  Citrus 
medica  and  Citrus  aurantium.  The  distinction 
between  the  two  varieties  is  that  the  Citrus  medica 
lias  an  oblong  fruit  and  Citrus  aurantium  has  a 
round  fruit. 

From  the  mercantile  standpoint,  the  lemons  are 
the  more  important.  They  are,  as  commonly 
known,  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  being  oval  and 
pointed  at  one  end.  There  are  two  varieties  of 
lemons,  namely,  the  citron  and  the  real  lemon. 
The  citron  comes  into  the  market  in  a  candied  con- 
dition, having  been  cut  into  strips  and  dried.  Toma- 
toes also  belong  to  this  variety  of  fruit,  and  are  much 
used  as  an  article  of  food  in  the  United  States. 

Oranges  may  be  distinguished  from  lemons  by 
their  round  form  and  orange-yellow  peel.  There 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  49 

are  two  general  varieties  of  this  fruit,  one  possess- 
ing a  bitter  and  the  other  a  sweet  taste.  The  peel 
on  some  kinds  of  oranges  is  thin  and  smooth,  and 
on  others  it  is  thick  and  rough.  The  blood  oranges 
possess  a  red  juice  and  flesh  of  the  same  color.  The 
peach  belongs  to  an  inferior  variety  of  the  orange 
specie. 

The  lemons  and  oranges  on  the  American  market 
are  produced  in  Florida,  Louisiana,  California,  Italy, 
and  Spain.  The  harvest  takes  place  from  October 
until  December.  The  fruits,  which  are  designed  for 
shipment,  must  be  plucked  when  still  green,  wrapped 
in  tissue  paper  and  placed  into  cases.  The  juicy, 
thin  peeled  oranges  and  lemons  are  most  highly 
prized. 

In  addition  to  the  fresh  fruits,  the  market  affords 
lemon  extract  and  dried  lemon  and  orange  peels. 

NUTMEG   AND    MACE. 

Mttscatniisse,  Mucadis,    \Iuskot. 

Both  of  these  species  are  the  product  of  the  nut- 
meg tree  which  is  cultivated  on  Sumatra,  Penang, 
Mauritius,  the  Antilles,  and  Surinam. 

The  fruit  is  a  pear-shaped  stone  fruit  of  a  yellow 
color  which  opens  in  two  valves.  Under  the  fleshy 
hull,  there  is  a  dark  brown  nut,  which  is  enveloped 
in  an  orange  colored  slitted  hull,  known  in  trade  by 
the  name  of  mace  (nutmeg  blossom).  The  nut 
itself  possesses  a  thin,  brittle  shell,  an  oval  shape 
and  a  marble-like  appearance. 

The  nuts,  after  having  been  deprived  of  their  hull, 
are  dried,  opened,  and  then  immersed  in  a  solution 
of  lime  and  salt-water,  to  prevent  their  destruction 
Tjy  insects,  which  accounts  for  the  white  coat  which 
appears  on  the  surface  of  the  nutmeg  when  brought 


50  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

into  trade.  Mace  is  immersed  in  salt-water  to 
insure  permanent  softness. 

Nutmegs  are  sometimes  imitated  by  being  formed 
from  clay  or  dough.  The  fraud  can  easily  be  detected 
by  cutting  one  of  the  nuts  and  observing  the 
absence  of  the  regular  veins  which  characterize  the 
genuine  article. 

Nutmegs  and  mace  should  be  kept  in  tightly  closed 
vessels  or  boxes. 

CARDAMOM. 

Cardamotnen,    Cardamome,    Kardemomen. 

The  varieties  of  this  specie  are  the  ripe  seed  capsules 
of  several  related  species  of  plants.  The  following 
varieties  are  distinguished  in  trade:  1,  the  round 
cardamom;  2,  the  small;  3,  the  long  variety  of 
cardemom. 

All  these  varieties  are  three-celled  and  contain 
numerous  wrinkled  seeds.  The  latter  has  a  taste 
and  odor  resembling  camphor. 

Cardamom  is  produced  in  East  India,  Sumatra, 
Cevlon,  and  Banda. 

Cardamom  is  used  as  a  spice  and  in  the  preparation 
of  medicine  and  ethereal  oils. 

VANILLA, 

Vanille,    Vanille,   Vanilj, 

Is  the  pod-shaped  dried  seed  capsules  of  the  aro- 
matic vanilla,  a  growthof  thefamily  of  theOrchidea, 
native  in  South  and  Central  America,  Southern 
Europe,  Mexico,  and  Bourbon. 

The  vanilla  vine  is  a  climbing  growth  which  clings 
to  trees  and  rocks.  Its  narrow,  veiny  leaves  are 
erect  alternately.  The  blossoms  are  of  a  greenish 
color  and  possess  five  petals. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  51 

The  fruit  is  cylindrical*  pod-like,  very  long,  and  of 
a  brown  color,  possessing  an  aromatic  marrow  and 
within  this  a  number  of  very  small  seeds.  From  it 
originates  a  crystalline  substance  termed  "vanillin" 
(vanilla-camphor). 

The  vanilla  harvest  lasts  from  December  until 
March.  The  pods  are  gathered  before  being  fully 
ripe,  and  are  then  permitted  to  wither  in  the  shade, 
and  are  finally  carefully  dried  in  the  sun.  After  being 
assorted  in  bunches  of  fifty  the  pods  are  placed  into 
tin  boxes. 

The  vanilla  bean  of  the  market  consists  of 
straight,  lightly  pressed,  furrowed,  tapering  brown 
pods  from  five  to  eight  inches  in  length.  It  is  rather 
soft  in  texture  and  somewhat  fatty.  Its  odor  is 
aromatic  and  very  pleasant.  The  taste  is  that  of 
balsam  with  a  trace  of  acid. 

The  preferred  variety  is  oneyielded  by  thecultureof 
the  vanilla  planifolia,  long  vanilla.  It  is  this  kind 
which,  when  enclosed  in  a  vessel,  is  covered  with 
crystals,  and  is  therefore  known  as  the  crystallized 
vanilla. 

The  second  kind  is  the  Cimarrona  vanilla  (wild 
vanilla).  It  is  nearly  like  the  former,  but  is 
smaller,  drier,  and  less  aromatic. 

The  poorest  of  the  three  Mexican  varieties  is  the 
broad  vanilla.  Its  pods  are  twice  as  broad  as 
those  of  the  first  kind,  and  its  odor  is  strong,  though 
not  so  pleasant  as  that  of  the  foregoing  varieties. 

The  other  important  varieties  are  the  Bourbon. 
Laguayra,  Guyana,  and  Brazilian  vanilla. 

Vanilla  should  be  preserved  in  air-tight  vessels. 

Vanilla  is  often  adulterated  by  being  mixed  with 
inferior  grades;  or  a  poor  article  is  treated  with 
Peruvian  balsam  to  impart  to  it  the  odor  and  fatti- 
ness  of  the  genuine  article. 


52  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Vanilla  is  used  preferably  for  flavoring  chocolate,, 
ices,  and  perfumes. 

PEPPER. 

Pfeffer,  Poivrc,  Pcppar. 

There  are  several  spices  and  drugs  which  occur  in 
commerce,  known  by  the  name  of  pepper,  namely, 
black  pepper,  white  pepper,  large  pepper,  Spanish 
pepper. 

Black  and  white  pepper  are  the  products  of  the 
pepper  shrub,  the  former  being  the  unripe,  dried, 
and  the  latter  the  ripe  berry  of  the  shrub,  which  is 
a  climbing  growth,  native  in  East  India,  Ceylon, 
Java,  Sumatra,  and  Malacca. 

The  plant,  a  bent  stalk,  that  attaches  itself  to 
trees  and  shrubs,  has  leaves  which  are  dark  green 
on  their  upper  side  and  lighter  below.  They  are 
heart  shaped,  and  covered  with  fine  veins. 

The  fruit  is  seedy  and  very  dry;  the  berry  is  brown- 
ish-red and  there  are  from  twenty  to  forty  on  a 
single  stalk,  some  being  ripe,  others  green. 

In  order  to  yield  black  pepper,  the  berries  are 
picked  when  still  unripe  and  dried  in  the  sun, 
whereby  the  skin  becomes  wrinkled.  The  dried  ber- 
ries possess  a  white,  hollow  kernel.  Toward  the 
rind  they  appear  to  be  of  a  greenish-yellow  tint. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  black  pepper  in  trade,  the 
heavy  and  the  light.  Heavy  pepper  is  produced 
in  Aleppi  and  Malabar,  and  the  lighter  kinds  in 
Penang,  Singapore,  Bombay,  Madras,  Batavia,  and 
Jamaica. 

The  white  pepper  is  yielded  by  the  berries  when 
freed  from  the  shell.  After  being  gathered,  the  ber- 
ries are  soaked  in  water,  until  the  shells  loosen.  Its 
kernels  are  of  the  size  of  a  small  pea.  White  pepper 
is  not  as  sharp  as  the  black  variety  and  is  scarcer. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OK  WARES.  53- 

Its  use  is  not  confined  to   the  kitchen,  but  it  is  also- 
used  as  a  drug. 

The  so-called  long  pepper  is  the  unripe  fruit-ear  of 
a  related  variety  of  the  plant.  Its  use  is  very 
limited.  It  was  formerly  employed  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  medicine. 

An  entirely  different  variety  of  those  mentioned  is 
the  Spanish,  Turkish,  or  Guinea  pepper.  This  is  the 
fruit  of  a  growth  which  belongs  to  the  genus  of 
our  potato  plants.  Its  place  of  nativity  was 
originally  confined  to  South  America,  but  it  is  now- 
produced  in  Spain,  Hungaria,  and  Southern  France^ 

The  fruit  is  long  and  tubular;  the  interior  is  filled 
with  a  large  number  of  flat,  round  seeds.  The  taste 
of  the  fruit  is  burning,  and  its  dust  is  irritating. 
The  powder  should  be  preserved  in  sealed  glass  ves- 
sels. It  is  often  brought  into  trade  mixed  with, 
brick  dust. 

Cayenne  pepper  is  manufactured  from  the  former 
variety.  It  is  a  preparation  produced  by  a  mixture 
of  the  flowers  and  powder  of  pepper  and  is  both 
yellow  and  red  in  color.  Cayenne  pepper  is  also 
sent  out  into  trade  from  South  America,  where  it  ia 
yielded  by  drying  the  berry  of  the  Capsicum 
baccatum.  This  pepper  is  much  used  in  our  country 
in  preparing  mixed  pickles. 

The  adulteration  of  pepper  is  very  common,  and 
is  accomplished  by  mixing  rasped  bark,  dried  crumbs, 
pepper  shells,  and  sand,  with  a  little  good  pepper  in 
order  to  impart  to  the  mixture  the  odor  of  the 
genuine  article. 

SEVERAL  OF    THE  LESS  IMPORTANT  DOMESTIC  SPICES. 

Among  the  best  known  domestic  spices  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Carrawayseed  is  the  seed  of  a  genus  of  a  well- 
known  umbellated  plant,  as  is  also  coriander,  which 


54  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

is  produced  in  England  and  France;  Anis,  which  is 
cultivated  in  Austria  and  Barbary,  fennel  and  dill 
\vhich  grow  in  Germany  and  the  United  States.  The 
foregoing  are  sometimes  employed  in  the  production 
of  medicine,  but  do  not  constitute  important  articles 
of  trade. 

ALLSPICE. 

Also  known  as  Pimento. 

The  spice  which  occurs  in  trade  under  this  name  is 
a  fruit  of  a  specie  of  the  myrtle  tree,  namely,  the 
pimento  tree,  the  home  of  which  is  in  West  India, 
especially  Jamaica  and  the  Barbadoes.  The  fruit 
is  of  the  size  of  peas  and  has  two  cells,  each  con- 
taining a  brown  seed. 

The  fruit  is  gathered  before  it  is  ripe,  and  is  then 
dried;  which  fact  accounts  for  its  wrinkled  appear- 
ance. The  taste  of  allspice  is  a  mixture  of  the 
flavor  of  pepper  and  cloves,  and  originates  from  an 
ethereal  oil  contained  in  the  dried  flesh  of  the  berry. 

Allspice  is  exported  in  large  quantities  from 
Jamaica  and  a  few  other  West  India  Islands. 

It  is  sent  in  bags  of  from  100  to  150  pounds. 
Spanish  allspice  is  a  large,  thick  shelled  variety 
which  has  an  inferior  odor.  It  is  cultivated  in  Cen- 
tral America. 

ST.  JOHN'S  BREAD 

Johanaisbrot,    Carouge,  Johannisbrod, 

Is  the  dried  fruit  of  the  St.  John's  bread  tree.  The 
home  of  this  tree  is  in  Southern  Europe,  especially 
Spain,  Sicily,  Malta,  Greece,  and  on  the  African 
coast.  It  is  a  small,  hardy  tree  with  feathery  leaves, 
and  long  blossoms  which  ultimately  form  into  a 
long,  leathery  pod,  in  the  cells  of  which  there  is  a 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  55 

hard,  shining  seed.  A  tree  yields  about  eighty 
pounds  of  these  pods  at  a  single  harvest. 

When  picked,  the  fruit  is  not  fully  ripe  and  is  there- 
fore placed  in  the  sun  to  develop  wholly. 

On  account  of  the  sweet  fleshy  meat  contained  in 
the  pods,  the  fruit  is  used  as  an  article  of  diet  in 
Sicily;  though,  in  this  country,  St.  John's  bread  is 
known  only  as  a  sweetmeat  for  children. 

TAMARIND 

Is  the  name  of  the  marrow,  contained  in  the  pod- 
like  fruit  of  the  Indian  tamarind  tree.  Though 
native  in  East  India,  this  tree  is  also  cultivated  in 
West  India  and  Egypt.  East  India  produces  the 
best.  It  is  a  dark  brown  mass  of  a  very  sour  taste. 
Generally  the  mass  is  mixed  with  the  seeds  and 
fibers  of  the  fruit.  Tamarind  is  prepared  in  copper 
kettles,  which  accounts  for  the  presence  of  slight 
traces  of  copper  in  it. 

Tamarind  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  cooling 
beverage  and  for  mildly  laxative  medicines. 

MUSTARD. 

Senf,   \foutarde,   Senap. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  mustard,  black  and 
white. 

The  black  mustard  is  the  seed  of  Sinapis  nigra,  the 
white  of  Sinapis  alba.  These  plants  grow  wild  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  Europe  and  are  cultivated  in 
Europe  and  America. 

The  seeds  of  the  white  mustard  are  threshed  from 
the  pods  in  the  usual  manner  and  have  a  yellowish 
tint,  while  the  variety  known  as  the  black  mustard 
has  a  brown  color  with  a  red  tint. 


O6  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Both  kinds  are  used  for  seasoning  and  as  a  med- 
icine, though  the  black  variety  is  best  suited  on 
account  of  its  greater  sharpness.  By  distilling  the 
latter  in  water,  a  very  sharp  ethereal  oil  is  yielded, 
known  as  mustard  oil.  White  mustard  produces  no 
oil.  The  fatty  oil  is  removed  from  the  seeds  by 
pressing  it  out.  The  seeds  can  be  best  preserved 
when  iree  from  oil. 

Large  quantities  of  black  mustard  are  produced 
in  Holland  and  come  into  trade  in  sacks  containing 
200  pounds. 

Mustard  appears  on  the  market  whole,  ground, 
and  prepared  in  vinegar.  Prepared  English  mustard 
is  highly  prized  for  its  excellent  qualit\f.  Prepared 
mustard  is  kept  in  jars  or  glass  bottles. 

SEEDS. 

Linseed,  the  seed  of  flax,  is  largely  produced  on 
the  European  continent,  India,  and  North  America. 
The  seeds  are  smooth,  shining,  brown,  oblong, 
containing  a  whitish  kernel  of  a  sweetish  taste. 

Linseed  is  used  in  making  linseed  oil  and  oil-cake. 

Hemp  seed  is  native  in  East  India,  though  culti- 
vated in  Europe  and  America.  It  is  used  largely  as 
food  for  birds,  and  yields  an  oil. 

Rape  seed  is  cultivated  in  the  same  regions  which 
produce  hemp  seed,  and  is  used  for  the  same  pur- 
pose. 

Madia  seed  is  native  in  Mexico.  The  seeds  are 
oblong  and  yield  from  30  to  40  per  cent  fat  oil, 
which  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  soap  and  for 
lubricating  oil. 

Clover  seed  is  the  seed  of  various  kinds  of  clover 
as  red,  white,  and  alsike  clover.  Red  clover  seeds 
are  round  and  of  a  wax-yellow  color.  White  clover 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  57 

seeds  are  smaller  than  those  of  the  red  variety,  and 
of  a  yellow  color.  Alsike  is  of  the  same  size  as  the 
white  clover,  but  is  of  a  yellowish  green  color. 

Timothy  seed  is  the  seed  of  timothy.  The  seeds, 
enclosed  by  a  shell,  are  small,  oblong,  and  grayish. 

The  grasses  yielded  by  the  latter  two  varieties  of 
seeds  are  used  largely  as  fodder  for  animals. 


CHAPTER  II. 
Flowers. 

CAPERS. 

Capers,  the  flowers  of  the  caper  bush,  are  pre- 
served in  salt  and  vinegar.  Capers  are  cultivated 
in  the  warmer  regions  of  Europe  and  America. 

Capers  grow  oa  a  black  shrub.  The  fruit  resembles 
a  berry-like  pod  with  a  stem. 

The  capers'  time  for  blossoming  is  in  the  summer. 
Before  the  blossom  has  fully  opened,  it  is  picked  and 
placed  in  a  shady  spot  and  permitted  to  wither. 
Assorted  according  to  their  size,  each  kind  is  sepa- 
rately placed  into  vinegar.  After  several  days  the 
latter  is  poured  off  and  replaced  by  fresh  vinegar ; 
to  which  a  little  salt  is  occasionally  added  to  make 
it  more  enduring.  Finally  the  capers  are  packed 
into  glass  jars.  In  this  condition  they  retain  their 
original  quality  several  years.  They  are  also 
brought  into  trade  preserved  in  oil. 

Capers  are  more  highly  valued  the  smaller  and 
firmer  they  are,  and  the  less  developed  the  blossom 
is.  The  smallest  variety  of  capers  is  known  as  the 
nonpareilles,  then  the  surfines,  capuzins,  capottes, 
fines,  mi-fines,  and  the  cummunes  follow  in  the 
order  named.  The  best  varieties  are  produced  in  Aix, 
Toulon,  and  Marseilles.  Capers  are  largely  used  in 
making  sauces. 

58 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  59» 

CLOVES. 

Netken,    Giraffes,   Kryddneglikor. 

Cloves  are  the  dried  blossoms  of  the  clove  tree,  a 
myrtle-like  growth  cultivated  in  Amboina,  Bourbon, 
Mauritius, the  Antilles, Guyana, etc.  It  is  a  handsome, 
thickly-branched  tree,  with  bright  green  leaves,  and 
beautiful  red  blossoms  bearing  a  strikingly  hand- 
some appearance. 

From  October  until  December,  the  undeveloped 
blossoms  of  the  tree  are  gathered  and  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  are  then  packed  into  hogsheads  and  sent 
out  as  spice. 

The  outer  color  of  cloves  is  dark,  while  their  inte- 
rior is  light  brown.  They  are  rich  in  ethereal  oils. 
When  properly  constituted,  cloves  are  not  broken 
nor  brittle,  and  are  not  reduced  to  powder  when 
subjected  to  pressure.  They  are  rather  moist  to  the 
touch,  and  their  taste  is  sharp  and  fiery. 

The  best  cloves  are  found  in  East  India  (Singapore 
and  Penang),  especially  those  from  Amboina,  one  of 
the  group  known  as  the  Spice  Islands.  The  Zanzibar 
cloves  are  dark  and  thin  and  of  little  value;  the 
same  is  true  of  the  cloves  produced  in  Cayenne  and 
Bourbon. 

In  addition  to  the  blossoms,  the  unripe  fruit  of 
the  cloves  often  finds  its  way  into  the  market  and  is 
known  as  the  mother  of  cloves.  The  stems  of  cloves 
also  occur  in  trade.  They  are  used  in  adulterating 
powdered  cloves. 

SAFFRON. 

Safran,  Safran,  Saffran. 

Saffron  consists  of  the  dried  stigma  of  the  common 
yellow  crocus,  abundant  in  our  gardens  in  early- 
spring. 


<>0  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

In  order  to  yield  saffron,  the  flowers  are  gathered, 
and  the  stigma  is  removed  and  dried  in  the  sun  or  by 
artificial  heat,  and  is  then  packed  into  a  linen  sack. 

Saffron  is  imported  from  France  and  Spain,  Italy 
and  Turkey. 

Saffron  should  be  preserved  in  sealed  vessels  and 
protected  irom  the  influence  of  the  light.  It  is  used 
not  only  as  flavoring  matter,  but  also  as  coloring 
material  to  color  confectionery,  bread,  macaroni, 
cheese,  and  butter,  and  in  small  quantities  as  a  med- 
icine. 

HOPS. 

Hopfeu,  Houblon,  Humle. 

Hops  is  the  name  applied  to  the  flowers  of  the  hop 
plant,  which  sometimes  grows  wild,  but  is  also  largely 
cultivated.  They  are  formed  irom  many  leathery 
scales,  at  the  base  of  which  are  two  small  seeds  sur- 
rounded by  a  yellow,  aromatic  dust.  This  dust  con- 
tains the  bitter  stuff  and  the  hop-oil  to  which  the 
hop  owes  its  most  valuable  principles. 

The  cones  are  gathered  before  they  are  fully  ripe, 
are  then  dried  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  stored  in  a 
dry  place. 

The  influence  of  moisture,  light,  and  air  are  likely 
to  effect  dry  hops  very  injuriously.  The  best  man- 
ner of  preserving  the  cones  is  to  press  them  by  means 
of  a  hydraulic  press  into  a  compact  mass.  Treatment 
•with  the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur  tends  to  make 
"them  even  more  enduring. 

Both  the  fruits  of  the  wild  and  cultivated  hops  are 
used.  The  former  are  larger,  though  of  an  inferior 
ilavor,  and  only  the  cultivated  hops  appear  largely 
in  trade.  There  are  two  varieties  of  hops,  the 
August  hops  and  the  late  fall  hops.  Hops  are,  as  is 
•commonly  known,  used  to  impart  to  beer  its  peculiar 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  61 

flavor.  The  best  varieties  are  used  in  preparing 
lager  beer. 

Hops  are  largely  cultivated  in  the  northern  states 
of  this  country  and  in  Northern  Europe.  The  New 
England  states,  Wisconsin  and  Oregon  are  among 
the  leading  hop  producing  states.  The  total  expor- 
tation of  hops  from  the  United  States  amounted  to 
12,600,000  pounds  in  1892. 

Test  of  Quality. — Hops  are  to  be  judged  according 
to  the  clamminess,  color  (preferably  light),  and  par- 
ticularly by  their  odor  and  taste. 

TEASELS. 

Karden,  Charclons,  Kardborrar. 

The  teasel  is  a  biennial  thistle,  several  feet  high, 
with  prickly  stem  and  leaves,  and  cylindrical  heads 
of  pale  or  white  flowers  between  \vhich  are  oblong, 
rigid  bracts,  hooked  at  the  point.  The  heads  are  cut 
off  when  the  plant  is  in  flower,  and  are  used  in 
•woolen  factories,  and  by  stocking-makers  for  rais- 
ing the  nap  on  cloth.  No  mechanical  contrivance  has 
yet  been  found  to  equal  teasel  for  this  purpose,  to 
•which  the  hooked  points,  the  rigidity,  and  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  bracts  are  admirably  adapted.  The 
heads  of  the  teasel  are  fixed  on  the  circumference  of 
a  wheel  or  cylinder,  which  is  made  to  revolve  against 
the  surface  of  the  cloth. 

Teasels  are  cultivated  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and 
are  exported  from  Holland  and  France.  They  are 
brought  into  trade  attached  to  their  stems  and  are 
packed  into  bundles. 

CINNAMON  FLOWERS. 

•Zimtblutc,  Fleurs  dc  canellc. 

Cinnamon  flowers  are  the  unripe,  dried  fruits  of  the 
Laurus  cassia.  They  possess  a  very  agreeable  taste, 


62  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

though  the  odor  and  taste  are  not  strongly  developed. 
The  flower  contains  much  ethereal  oil,  which  is  used,, 
like  cinnamon,  as  an  article  for  flavoring. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Leaves. 

BAY   LEAVES. 
LorbeerblHtter.    Fenilles  de  Laurier,    Lagerblad. 

Bay  leaves  are  the  leaves  of  the  sweet  bay  or 
laurel.  They  are  large,  lanceolate,  leathery,  reticu- 
lated with  veins.  They  are  bitter  and  agreeably- 
aromatic,  and  are  therefore  used  in  cookery. 

Bay  leaves  are  sent  into  the  market  dried,  attached 
to  stems,  and  loosely  packed.  They  are  of  a  yellow- 
ish-brown when  dried.  Bay  leaves  come  irom  the 
regions  of  the  Mediterranean. 

TOBACCO. 

Tabak,   Tabac,  Tobak. 

The  tobaccos  of  commerce  are  the  more  or  less 
prepared  leaves  of  the  tobacco  plant,  of  which  there 
are  three  varieties,  the  common  or  Virginian  tobacco, 
with  lancet  shaped  leaves  and  violet  blossoms;  the 
large  leaved  or  Maryland  tobacco,  with  oval  shaped 
leaves  and  violet  blossoms ;  the  Farmers'  or  violet 
tobacco,  with  wrinkled  oval  leaves  and  yellow  blos- 
soms. The  tobacco  plant  is  a  native  of  America, 
from  where  it  was  introduced  into  Europe  in  1560. 
It  is  cultivated  verv  large  ly  in  the  United  States. 

63 


64  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

The  characteristic  elements  which  enter  into  the 
composition  of  the  tobacco  leaf  are  nicotine,  tobacco 
camphor,  and  tobacco  acid.  Nicotine,  when  pure,  is 
a  colorless  oil  having  a  stupefying  odor  and  a  burn- 
ingtaste.  Even  in  small  quantities, itacts  as  a  deadly 
poison.  Stripped  and  dried  tobacco  contains 
nicotine  as  follows:  Virginia,  6.8;  Kentucky,  6.1; 
Maryland,  2.3;  Havana,  less  than  2  per  cent. 
Tobacco  camphor  possesses  the  odor  of  camphor 
and  a  very  bitter  taste.  The  finest  tobaccos  con- 
tain the  largest  quantity  of  this  element.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  ingredients,  tobacco  leaves  contain 
wood  fiber,  albumen,  gum,  resin,  and  from  19  to  27 
per  cent  of  ashes. 

When  the  plant  begins  to  develop  flowers,  the 
top  or  head  is  cut  off,  in  order  that  its  leaves  may 
become  more  luxuriant.  The  lower,  yellow,  clammy 
leaves  ripen  first,  and  constitute  the  first  crop 
(scrubs);  then  the  middle  and  lastly  the  uppermost 
leaves  are  harvested.  The  picked  leaves  are  heaped 
and  allowed  to  sweat,  and  are  then  gathered  into 
strings  and  hung  under  a  shed  to  dry.  The  leaves 
are  often  subjected  to  a  second  fermentation  which 
is  continued  until  the  following  May.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  prevent  the  dry  leaves  from  gathering 
moisture  and  to  thereby  prepare  the  leaves  for 
packing  and  shipping.  At  the  same  time  the  fer- 
mentation destroys  the  albumen  and  the  nicotine, 
these  being  particularly  offensive  to  smokers. 

The  quality  of  tobacco  is  much  influenced  by  the 
condition  of  the  climate,  soil,  and  manner  of 
treatment. 

Leaf  tobacco  is  sent  into  trade  in  barrels,  boxes, 
and  packages. 

The  varieties  which  occur  in  trade  at  present  may 
be  classified  as  follows: 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  65 

WEST  INDIAN  TOBACCO. 

The  best  and  dearest  kind  is  the  Havana,  which 
comes  into  trade  packed  into  balls  of  100  pounds. 
Its  use  is  confined  nearly  exclusively  to  the  manu- 
facture of  cigars,  and  the  finer  grades  are  used  as 
cigar  wrappers.  Vuelta  de  Abajos,  Partidos,  Yuelta 
Arabia  are  names  of  a  few  grades  of  fine  Havanas. 

Cuba  tobacco  is  similar  to  Havana,  though  of  an 
inferior  quality.  The  packages  are  bound  with  a 
cane-like  fiber  and  appear  in  trade  with  the  folio  wing 
names:  Yara,  Liguani,  Santiago,  Principe,  Sagua, 
Gibara,  Guiza,  etc. 

Domingo  appears  in  malatos  of  from  four  to  five 
pounds,  and  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
cigars,  especially  for  \vrappers. 

Jamaica  is  similar  to  Cuba,  and  its  quality  is 
between  that  of  Havana  and  Cuba. 

Porto  Rico  comes  in  leaves  and  is  not  packed  into 
rolls.  Its  use  is  confined  largely  to  the  production 
of  smoking  tobacco .  Its  distinctive  kinds  are  Guyara, 
Guanilla,  Aquadilla,  Bona,  Cuba,  Rossa. 

SOUTH  AMERICAN  TOBACCO. 

Brazil  leaf  tobacco,  of  which  St.  Felix  is  the  finest 
and  best  product,  comes  assorted  in  20  or  30  leaves, 
packed  in  linen  in  quantities  up  to  300  pounds.  Its 
use  is  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  cigars.  Rio 
Grande  is  an  inferior  variety  of  Farmers  tobacco. 
Frisco  Brazil  is  a  damp  production  which  is  spun  in 
large  balls  and  packed  in  hides. 

Esmeralda  comes  into  the  market  in  very  small 
quantities.  Its  leaves  are  strongly  veined  or  entirely 
unveined  and  usually  spotted.  Its  use  is  confined 
to  cigar  wrappers. 

6 


66  THE  KNOWLEDGE:  OF  WARES. 

Columbia  is  of  manifold  varieties,  Ambalina,  Car- 
men, Giron,  Palmyra,  etc.  These  tobaccos  are 
packed  into  rolls,  covered  with  raw  leather,  and 
occasionally  with  linen,  and  consist  of  small  rolls 
wound  in  wood  fiber  or  the  unrolled,  smooth  leaves. 
This  tobacco  is  devoted  to  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
cigar  manufacturer. 

Varinas — Canaster  formerly  came  into  trade  packed 
into  rolls,  six  of  which  were  contained  in  a  basket 
ofwoven  reeds.  Now  it  is  customary  to  wrap  a 
quantity  of  leaves  separately  and  then  pack  them 
into  a  basket  for  shipment.  The  better  qualities  of 
this  variety  still  retain  their  first  rank  as  smoking 
tobacco.  The  production  of  tobacco  in  Varinas  has 
decreased  materially,  owing  to  the  numerous  civil 
wars,  and  to  the  reduced  price  of  the  product. 

THE   NORTH    AMERICAN  TOBACCO. 

The  largest  quantity  which  comes  into  market  is 
of  Maryland  tobacco,  and,  similar  to  this,  Ohio  and 
Bay  tobacco,  all  in  tightly  pressed  bunches.  It 
is  used  only  for  smoking  tobacco.  Maryland  scrubs 
are  the  first  ripened,  lower  leaves. 

Virginia  is  a  heavy,  fatty  tobacco,  adapted  for  the 
production  of  chewing  and  smoking  tobaccos ;  large 
quantities  are  used  for  the  former  purpose  in  the 
United  States. 

Kentucky  tobacco  is  used  largely  in  the  production 
of  chewing  tobacco  in  the  United  States  and  Europe 
as  well  as  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars,  smoking 
tobacco  and  snuff,  according  to  its  adaptation  to 
these  purposes.  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Tennessee 
produce  small  quantities  of  an  inferior  grade  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Kentucky  tobacco. 

Missouri,  especially  Mason  county  and  Mayville, 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  67 

produce  a  variety  which  is  much  used  as    wrappers 
for  cigars. 

Seed  leaf  tobacco  comes  into  trade  from  Connecti- 
cut, Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  Florida,  in  boxes  of 
from  300  to  400  pounds. 

ASIATIC  TOBACCOS. 

Java,  Sumatra,  and  Manilla  send  out  large  quan- 
tities of  tobacco  into  trade,  which  are  much  esteemed 
by  cigar  manufacturers.  The  Java  product  has  the 
following  species:  Blitar,  Kedirie,  Malang,  Bezoekie, 
Loemadjang,  Rembang,  Samarang,  Cadoe,  Banjoe- 
mas,  and  Preanger,  of  Sumatra;  Deli,  Lankat, 
Padang,  St.  Cyr,  Bodangau.  The  scrub  varieties  are 
designated  by  the  name,  Krossok. 

EUROPEAN  TOBACCO. 

Grecian  and  Turkish  tobacco  is  used  largely  in 
England.  It  has  found  its  way  into  trade  only  in 
recent  years. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  named,  Hungary  pro- 
duces several  superior  species  of  tobacco.  Hunga- 
rian tobacco  constitutes  an  important  article  of 
export  from  that  country  to  all  parts  of  Europe. 

Germany,  Holland,  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  are 
tobacco  producing  countries,  though  they  export 
but  little. 

Test  of  Quality. — In  order  to  determine  the  quality 
of  tobacco,  a  leaf  should  be  burnt,  and  the  odor 
arising  therefrom  made  the  means  of  deciding  upon 
the  agreeableness.  The  flavor  is  arrived  at  by 
tasting  the  tobacco,  though  much  experience  is 
necessary  to  make  such  a  test  with  a  degree  of 
certainty. 


68  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

TOBACCO  PRODUCTS. 

In  order  to  produce  smoking  tobacco,  the  assorted 
leaves  are  freed  from  the  thick  ribs  and  treated  with 
a  solution  of  salts  (common  salt,  saltpeter,  sal 
ammoniac,  citric,  or  oxalic  potash),  spices,  and 
sugar.  The  leaves,  after  this  treatment,  are  placed 
in  a  barrel  to  ferment,  and  are  then  hoarded  and 
dried.  The  mineral  salts  serve  to  hasten  or  lessen 
the  combustion  of  the  tobacco ;  the  other  ingredients 
add  to  it  both  flavor  and  durability. 

The  best  and  most  popular  cigars  are  manufac- 
tured in  Havana,  though  the  production  of  these 
cigars  is  now  carried  on  all  over  the  civilized  world. 
The  consumption  of  this  grade  of  cigars  is  growing 
continually. 

The  manufacture  of  tobacco  into  cigars  has 
become  a  very  important  industry  in  the  United 
States.  The  high  protective  tariff,  which  has  been 
placed  upon  the  imported  article,  tends  to  exclude 
the  latter  from  the  market  almost  entirely. 

The  finer  grades  of  cigars  have  Manilla,  Java,  or 
Sumatra  wrappers,  while  the  filler  is  of  Havana, 
Cuba,  Felix,  or  Brazil  tobacco. 

The  inferior  varieties  have  a  Columbia,  Domingo, 
or  Missouri  wrapper,  and  a  filler  of  some  ordinary 
American  variety. 

The  names  of  cigars  originate  from  various 
sources.  Those  of  the  imported  cigars  are  largely 
Spanish,  as  Imperiales,  Regalia  Conchas,  Londres, 
etc.  According  to  their  color,  cigars  are  named 
amarillo,  colorados,  claros,  madura,  oscuro,  cor- 
responding with  the  English  designations  yellow, 
light  brown,  super  fine  brown,  fine  brown,  brown. 

Cigars  are  marketed  in  bunches  of  25,  50,  and 
100,  and  in  cases  containing  100,  250,  or  500.  They 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  69 

should  be  kept  in  dry  though  not  in  warm  places. 
The  iermentation  which  continues  during  storage 
adds  to  the  quality  of  the  cigars. 

Cigarettes  are  produced  by  covering  an  inferior 
tobacco  with  thin  rice  paper.  The  cigarettes  which 
come  into  trade  are  usually  of  a  very  inferior  quality, 
the  filler  being  treated  with  nicotine  and  sundry 
poisons  to  give  them  the  semblance  of  tobacco. 
Laws  have  gone  into  effect  in  various  states  to 
prevent  the  sale  of  this  article. 

Snuff  is  produced  from  the  fattiest  tobacco  leaves. 
The  leaves  are  treated  with  sal  ammoniac  and  aro- 
matic substances,  and  permitted  to  ferment.  They 
are  thenrolled  together  and  grated  into  powder.  In 
order  to  make  snuff  durable,  glycerine  or  a  similar 
substance  is  added  to  it.  Snuff  is  brought  in  to  trade 
under  various  names  as,  Paris,  St.  Omar,  Mops, 
Bernard,  Spaniol,  Natchetoches  (American). 

Plug  tobacco  is  manufactured  Irorn  leaf  tobacco 
mixed  with  syrup  and  pressed  into  pound  bars  or 
small  cakes.  It  is  much  used  in  England  and  the 
United  States,  \vhere  it  is  largely  manufactured.  It 
comes  into  trade  in  butts  containing  about  twenty- 
three  pounds.  Spearhead,  Twist,  Climax,  Caven- 
dish are  the  names  of  common  varieties  of  plug 
tobacco. 

The  exportatian  of  leaf  tobacco  irom  this  country 
in  1892  amounted  to  240,000,000  pounds;  stems 
and  trimmings  to  14,000,000;  valued  at  $20,000,- 
000  and  $366,000,  respectively.  While  the  total 
value  of  the  product  imported  amounted  to 
$10,000,000. 

TEA. 
Thee,    Thi,  The. 

Tea  consists  of  the  dried  and  rolled  leaves  of  the 
tea  plant  (Thea  viridis  and  Thea  bohea),  the  home 


70  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

of  which  is  in  China  and  Japan.  The  tea  of  the 
market  is  largely  the  product  of  China;  a  compara- 
tively small  amount  is  produced  in  Japan,  British 
India,  Java,  and  Madura. 

The  two  varieties  of  the  tea  plant  can  scarcely  be 
distinguished  from  each  other.  They  are  evergreen 
shrubs  which  grow  to  the  height  of  from  four  to  six 
feet,  and  possess  elliptical,  dark-green  leaves.  The 
blossom  is  similar  to  that  of  the  wild  rose.  The 
fruit  consists  of  three  round  capsules,  containing  one 
or  two  seeds.  The  leaves  possess  an  alkaloid,  simi- 
lar to  that  of  coffee,  known  as  thein,  in  quantity 
of  about  4  per  cent. 

The  gathering  of  the  leaves  continues  from  April 
until  September.  The  height  of  the  season  is  in 
July  and  August,  when  many  plantations  yield  from 
6,000  to  8,000  pounds  of  leaves.  Under  favorable 
conditions,  in  East  India,  three  gatherings  take 
place  each  month. 

The  iresh  shoots  are  plucked  with  a  part  of  the 
stem  attached.  Old  and  hard  leaves  are  thrown 
away.  The  heavy,  silvery  white,  or  orange  col- 
ored points  of  the  leaves  furnished  the  so-called 
"Flowery- Pekoe." 

The  freshly  plucked  tea  leaf  has  a  bitter,  but  not 
astringent  taste.  It  acts  as  a  laxative  upon  foreign- 
ers in  China,  but  loses  this  attribute  when  dried  in 
the  air  or  over  a  slow  fire. 

In  accordance  with  the  manner  of  treatment  in 
drying,  the  leaves  obtain  various  colors,  as  green, 
black,  and  red.  The  largest  product  is  that  of  the 
black  tea.  It  is  exported  largely  to  America  from 
Shanghai,  Han-Kow,  Foo-Chow,  Canton,  and 
Amboy.  Japan  and  Java  furnish  only  black  and 
green  tea.  The  name  of  the  tea  originates  from 
the  locality  in  which  it  is  produced. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  71 

About  the  manner  of  preparing  tea  for  market,  we 
Tcnow  the  following:  In  China  the  leaves  are 
spread  upon  mats  and  placed  into  the  sun  to  dry. 
The  shrunken  or  rolled  product  is  kneaded  by  men 
with  their  naked  feet.  The  rolled  leaves  are  then 
gathered  into  thin  layers  and  stirred  over  a  slow 
coal  fire,  until  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about 
200°  F.  Then  the  mixing,  sifting,  and  sorting  takes 
place  \vhich  is  concluded  by  again  drying  the  mass 
over  a  fire  in  order  to  free  it  from  the  moisture  which 
has  been  absorbed  during  the  treatment.  The  pre- 
pared tea  is  packed  into  boxes  lined  with  tinfoil  and 
is  then  ready  for  transportation.  The  odorous 
blossoms  of  the  Chloranthus,  Lambar,  Jasminum, 
Gardenia  are  employed  in  giving  tea  a  perfume. 
Adulteration  is  practiced  largely  in  Canton,  hence 
the  designation  "Canton  made"  in  contradistinction 
to  "Country."  The  leaves  of  Salix  alba  are  used  in 
the  adulteration  and  Prussian  blue,  indigo, curcuma, 
and  white  earth  are  employed  to  artificially  color 
the  leaves  The  red  tea  has  a  dark  brown  color, 
though  the  water  in  which  it  is  cooked  has  a  red 
appearance. 

The  green  varieties  of  the  Chinese  tea  are  known 
"by  the  following  names  in  the  market:  Imperial, 
Gunpowder,  Shanghai,  Pins  Head,  Moyune,  and 
Canton.  Japanese:  Gunpowder,  Young  Hyson. 
Java:  Gunpowder. 

Of  the  black  teas,  Chinese :  Foo-choo-foo,  Hung- 
niuey,  Oopack,  Kaison,  Oonam,  Plain  Orange, 
Scented  Orange,  and  Flowery  Pekoe,  Souchong. 
Assam:  Congo,  Orange  Pekoe,  Souchong.  Java: 
Congo,  Imperial. 

The  tea  which  is  reduced  to  powder  by  handling  is 
termed  tea  dust. 


72  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Pure  Pekoe  has  an  excellent  flavor  which  can  only 
be  retained  by  steeping  the  leaves  in  hot  water  a 
minute  and  using  it  without  the  addition  of  milk  or 
sugar. 

There  are  a  number  of  substitutes  which  are  used 
for  tea;  among  these  Paraguay  tea,  cocoa  shells 
(the  shells  of  the  cocoa  bean),  are  best  known  and 
most  largely  used. 

The  consumption  of  tea  is  increasing  continually, 
and  at  present  it  is  very  commonly  used.  The 
United  States  is  second  only  to  England  in  the 
quantity  consumed  per  head.  In  1892  the  total 
value  of  the  imported  product  into  this  country 
amounted  to  more  than  $14,000,000. 

SENNA  LEAVES. 

Sennesblatter,  Folia  Sennac,  Sennetshlad. 

Senna  leaves  are  the  dried  leaves  of  two  species  of 
the  cassia  bush.  One  of  these  bushes  grows  in 
Dongola  and  Nubia  and  the  other  in  Yemen,  Arabia,, 
and  in  Upper  Egypt. 

The  best  variety  is  termed  Alexandria ;  they  are  of 
light  yellow  color,  and  have  an  unpleasant  odor  and 
a  sharp,  bitter  taste. 

The  East  Indian  senna  leaves  are  also  of  an  excel- 
lent quality. 

Senna  leaves  are  largely  used  as  a  medicine. 


CHAPTER   IV. 
Barks. 

CINNAMON. 

Zint,   Cannelle,  Canel. 

Genuine  cinnamon  is  the  inner  rind  of  the  cinnamon 
tree,  a  growth  similar  to  the  laurel  tree,  a  native  of 
Ceylon,  cultivated  also  in  Asia,  the  Sunday  Islands, 
the  West  Indies,  and  South  America. 

The  most  useful  part  of  the  tree  is  the  bark  of  its 
young  shoots.  For  this  reason  the  tree  is  deprived 
of  its  branches  when  it  is  about  four  feet  high ;  its 
crown  is  also  cut  away  in  order  that  it  may  branch 
out  more  densely.  The  bark  is  peeled  from  the 
branches  during  the  interval  from  April  until  August 
and  from  November  until  January.  The  br  anches 
are  not  permitted  to  become  older  than  two  years. 
The  bark  is  freed  from  its  outer  coating  and  the 
tubes,  which  the  bark  forms,  are  placed  into  each 
other,  and  dried  in  the  air,  which  causes  them  to  curl 
about  each  other  very  tightly.  They  are  then 
assorted  according  to  their  qualities  and  packed  into 
bundles  of  from  sixty  to  ninety  pounds. 

The  cinnamon  of  commerce  is  either  whole,  broken, 
or  powdered.  The  broken  pieces  of  roots  and  leaves 
are  used  in  distilling  the  cinnamon  oil. 

Of  the  various  grades  of  cinnamon  of  commerce, 
Ceylon  cinnamon,  of  the  bitter  quality,  is  the  finest. 

73 


74  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Its  color  is  light-brown,  and  it  possesses  a  pleasant, 
spicy,  slightly  sweet  taste.  Its  bark  is  thin  and  very 
brittle. 

The  Java  cinnamon  approaches  the  Ceylon  variety 
very  closely  in  quality,  though  darker  in  color, 
thicker,  and  less  firmly  rolled. 

These  two  varieties  of  cinnamon  are  tied  up  into 
the  form  of  balls,  in  matting  or  otherwise. 

In  addition  to  the  genuine  article,  the  barks  of  other 
trees  of  the  genus  of  the  laurel  find  their  way  into 
trade  as  cinnamon ;  among  these  maybe  mentioned : 

The  cinnamon  cassia,  which  may  be  distinguished 
from  the  Ceylon  cinnamon  by  its  felty,  hairy 
branches.  The  tree  is  produced  in  China,  Cochin 
China,  in  Mexico,  and  in  South  America.  The  former 
two  countries  yield  the  best  cassia. 

The  cassia  of  the  market  is  thicker  and  darker  than 
cinnamon.  Its  taste  is  less  agreeable,  and  it  is  often 
covered  with  a  part  of  the  tree's  outer  skin.  It  is 
used  most  largely  as  a  spice. 

The  white  cinnamon  is  the  inner  bark  of  the  white 
cinnamon  tree,  a  growth  which  is  yielded  largely  in 
the  West  Indies.  It  is  spicy,  and  its  taste  is  sharp 
and  bitter,  resembling  cloves. 

Clove  cinnamon,  or  black  cinnamon,  is  the  bark  of 
the  clove  myrtle.  The  bark  is  thick,  dark  brown,  or 
black,  and  combines  the  odor  of  cinnamon  and 
cloves,  though  the  latter  is  more  perceptible. 

CORK. 

Kork,  Liege,  Kork. 

Cork  is  the  outer  rind  of  the  cork-oak,  which  grows 
preferably  in  Spain,  Portugal,  Southern  France, 
Northern  Africa  and  Asia. 

The  bark  of  the  tree  is  peeled  off  at  intervals  of 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  75 

from  four  to  eight  years,  which  does  not  injure  the 
tree,  but  tends  to  lengthen  its  life.  The  bark  is  soaked 
in  warm  water,  and  then  pressed  into  cakes,  and 
after  having  been  dried,  it  is  scorched  on  the  outside, 
thus  securing  it  from  becoming  worm  eaten. 

Good  cork  is  elastic  and  free  from  cuts,  holes,  and 
woody  parts.  It  comes  into  trade  partially  cut  into 
corks  for  flasks,  soles,  etc. 

The  largest  quantity  and  best  cork  comes  from 
Spain,  where  the  tree  is  peeled  every  four  years.  The 
French  and  Algerian  cork  is  very  good.  The  poorest 
variety  comes  from  Sicily. 

Cork  stoppers  are  cut  from  cork  with  a  knife  either 
free-hand  or  with  a  machine.  The  cutting  utensil  is 
coated  with  tallow  when  thus  used.  Corks  of 
various  sizes  and  forms  appear  in  trade  suited  to  the 
shapes  and  sizes  of  bottles. 

Cork  soles  are  also  extensively  manufactured  and 
used  in  footwear. 

Cork  coal  is  used  as  a  black  coloring  pigment 
(Spanish  black).  Kamptulikon  is  a  mixture  of 
gutta  perch  a,  or  thick  linseed  oil  and  bits  of  cork 
rolled  out  into  sheets  for  covering  floors.  Linoleum 
is  a  waxed  cork  matting,  produced  from  canvas 
coated  with  a  mixture  of  linseed  oil  and  cork  pow- 
der finished  in  various  colored  patterns. 


CHAPTER   V. 
Hoots. 

GINGER. 

Ingwer,  Gingembre,  Ingefara. 

Ginger  is  the  dried  root-stalk  of  the  ginger  plant,  a 
growth  \vhich  is  native  in  East  India,  and  is  culti- 
vated in  China,  West  India,  and  Africa. 

The  plant  is  biennial,  and  has  tuber-like  root 
stalks;  its  stalks  grow  to  the  height  of  more  than 
three  feet,  and  are  covered  with  lance  shaped  leaves. 

In  order  to  yield  ginger  the  root  stalks,  at  the  age 
of  a  year,  are  taken  from  the  soil,  after  having  devel- 
oped blossoms,  and  freed  from  the  fiber,  cut  into 
pieces  and  dried.  The  two  year  old  tubers  are  woody 
and  yield  poor  ginger.  To  protect  the  tubers  from 
the  worms,  they  are  treated  to  a  coating  of  clay 
or  lye. 

Ginger  comes  into  trade  in  flatly  pressed  pieces 
about  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  When  broken,  it 
has  a  horny  appearance,  and  is  filled  with  oil  cells. 
Ginger  is  usually  sold  in  a  granulated  form. 

We  distinguish  white  from  brown  ginger.  The 
former  is  freed  from  its  outer  rind  and  carefully 
dried,  and  is  therefore  preferred.  Both  varieties  must 
")e  free  from  worms,  difficult  to  break,  and  of  a  very 
spicy  odor  and  taste. 

76 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  77 

The  East  Indian  varieties  come  from  Malabar  and 
Bengal ;  the  West  Indian  from  Jamaica  and  Barba- 
does,  and  have  crowded  the  East  Indian  product 
from  the  market  almost  entirely.  The  other  coun- 
tries which  produce  ginger  are  China,  Cochin  China, 
and  Africa.  No  particular  care  need  be  taken  in 
keeping  this  product. 

It  is  customary  to  fill  the  intervening  space  on 
transporting  freight  ships  with  balls  containing 
ginger  root. 

CHICORY. 

Zicborien,  Chicorie,  Cichorie. 

Chicory  is  the  root  of  the  common  chicory,  which 
is  frequently  used  in  producing  a  surrogate  for  coffee, 
and  constitutes,  in  its  prepared  condition,  an 
important  article  in  trade. 

It  does  not  contain  the  characteristic  elements  of 
coffee,  and  possesses  nothing  in  common  with  the 
latter  except  its  similarity  of  color  when  prepared. 
This  is  also  true  of  other  coffee  surrogates,  among 
which  maybe  mentioned  the  "  Caramel  Malt  Coffee," 
a  preparation  yielded  from  malted  barley,  which  has 
been  placed  on  the  market  lately,  and  is  possessed  of 
a  degree  of  excellence  as  a  beverage.  It  contains 
none  of  the  narcotic  stimulating  qualities  of  coffee. 

The  chicory  plant  is  cultivated  largely  in  Europe. 
It  is  not  commonly  known  in  the  United  States,  and 
the  article  found  in  trade  here  is  imported  from 
Germany  and  France.  It  is  packed  into  paper  pack- 
ages and  is  sometimes  called  "German  Coffee." 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Sugars. 

SUGAR. 

Zucker,  Sucre,  Socker. 

Sugar  is  the  name  of  a  sweet  element  of  numerous 
plants  'which  is  distinguished  by  the  fact  that,  when 
water  and  yeast  are  added,  it  will  ferment  in  a  mod- 
erate temperature,  thus  producing  alcohol.  Sugars 
are  of  three  kinds,  cane,  grape  (glucose),  and  fruit 
sugar. 

From  a  mercantile  standpoint,  cane  sugar  is  most 
worthy  of  consideration.  It  is  the  sweetest  of  all 
the  varieties  of  sugar,  and  dissolves  in  one-third 
cold  or  any  quantity  of  hot  water.  It  may  be  pre- 
served in  closed  vessels  and  is  valuable  in  preserving 
articles;  e.  g.,  fruits. 

Sugar  is  contained  in  a  number  of  plants,  especially 
in  the  sugar  cane,  from  which  most  of  the  product  is 
yielded,  also  in  the  sap  of  the  maple  and  palm  trees 
and  in  the  beet.  It  is  contained  in  small  quantities 
in  the  sap  of  the  birch  tree,  in  the  carrot,  maize, 
melons,  bananas,  etc. 

Sugar  cane  is  a  growth  of  the  genus  of  grasses,  a 
native  of  East  India,  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies 
and  in  many  parts  of  America  and  Australia. 

The  plant,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties, 
grows  preferably  in  swampy  regions.  From  a  fibery 


78 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  79 

root,  it  develops  into  a  tubular  yellow,  green,  or 
violet  stem,  which  attains  a  height  of  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  about  four  inches. 
Its  leaves  are  long  and  ribbon-like.  Before  it  blos- 
soms, or  after  fifteen  months  of  vegetable  growth, 
the  stems  are  cut  off  near  the  root  and  tied  into 
bundles;  the  sap  is  then  yielded  by  crushing  the 
cane  between  the  rollers  of  a  mill.  Of  the  90  per 
cent  of  sap  which  is  contained  in  the  cane,  only 
about  60  per  cent  is  yielded,  owing  to  the  inad- 
equateness  of  the  manner  of  expressing. 

The  expressed  sweet  sap,  owing  to  its  tendency  to 
ferment,  is  rapidly  converted  into  sugar  by  cooking 
it  in  lime  water,  thus  purifying  it,  until  it  is  suf- 
ficiently thick  that  crystallization  can  take  place 
when  cooled.  In  order  that  large  crystals  will  not 
form  the  mass  is  sifted. 

After  several  weeks  a  dark  brown  fluid  is  poured 
from  the  mass  which  is  known  as  molasses.  The 
rem  lining  sugar  is  of  a  yellow  color  and  composed 
of  small  granules.  The  sugars  of  the  market  are 
valued  according  to  their  whiteness  and  fineness. 
The  various  grades  are  brown,  "C,"  "A,"  granu- 
lated, pulverized,  cut  loaf  (cut  into  half  inch  cubes 
from  pressed  loaves). 

The  manner  of  refining  sugar  in  the  sugar  refineries 
is  generally  as  follows : 

The  sugar  is  dissolved  in  about  30  per  cent  water ; 
and  the  syrup  is  clarified  by  cooking  it  with  from 
Vz  to  2  per  cent  ox-blood  and  from  3  to  4  per  cent 
powdered  bone-coal,  and  cooked  in  a  vacuum-pan, 
until  enough  water  has  evaporated  to  enable  crys- 
tals to  form. 

During  the  process  of  crystallization,  the  sugar  is 
stirred  in  order  that  the  granules  will  become  fine. 
Thereupon  the  spigot  is  removed  from  the  lower  part 


80  THK    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

of  the  vat  that  the  "green  syrup "  may  flow  off ;  a 
solution  of  clear  concentrated  sugar  is  poured  over 
the  mass,  and  the  sugar  is  then  removed  to  dry.  The 
faint  yellow  tint  of  the  sugar  is  obliterated  by  add- 
ing a  small  quantity  of  ultramarine  before  the 
crystals  form.  Out  of  the  syrup  obtained  from  the 
first  product  and  the  syrups  of  the  various  inferior 
products  a  number  of  grades  of  sugar  are  yielded. 

The  removal  of  the  syrup  from  cane  sugar  is 
accomplished  by  means  of  a  centrifugal  machine ;  the 
latter  throws  it  off.  The  raw  sugar  is  of  a  light 
brown  or  yellow  color,  and  of  the  consistency  of 
bread  crumbs. 

Rock  candy  is  a  crystallized  sugar  which  is  yielded 
by  immersing  strings  in  a  solution  of  water  and 
sugar  and  permitting  the  crystals  to  attach  them- 
selves thereto. 

Next  to  the  sugar  cane,  the  beet  yields  the  largest 
percentage  of  sugar  (about  11  per  cent).  The  man- 
ner of  treating  the  beet  for  this  purpose  is  various. 
Usually  it  is  grated  after  being  cleaned,  and  then  the 
sap  is  extracted  by  hydraulic  pressure  or  the  green 
beets  are  cut  into  narrow  strips  and  diffused  in 
lukewarm  water.  The  latter  method  is  winning 
favor  in  Germany,  owing  to  the  fact  that  it  yields 
the  sugar  in  greater  abundance  and  more  rapidly 
than  other  methods. 

The  production  of  sugar  and  syrup  is  developing 
wonderfully  in  the  United  States,  and  in  consequence 
the  importation  of  these  articles  is  gradually  declining. 
In  1892  the  United  States  imported  $104,000,000 
\vorth  of  sugar  and  $2,800,000  of  molasses;  about 
twice  the  amount  of  molasses  was  imported  in  1890. 

Maple  sugar  is  yielded  from  the  sap  of  the  maple 
tree ;  the  sap  is  gathered  and  boiled  to  the  proper 
consistency  and  is  permitted  to  cool  and  crystallize. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  81 

When  syrup  is  desired  the  sap  is  subjected  to  less 
boiling.  Its  taste  is  very  agreeable  and  its  general 
excellence  makes  it  much  sought  for.  It  is  produced 
only  in  the  United  States  and  Canada.  Vermont 
furnishes  the  best  product  of  this  kind  which  reaches 
the  market. 

An  instrument  known  as  the  saccharometer,  is 
used  to  test  the  variety  of  sugar. 

Grape  sugar,  or  glucose,  is  the  crystallized  sugar  of 
various  fruits  and  other  articles.  Apples  contain  8 
per  cent,  cherries  11  per  cent,  grapes  from  14-  to  15 
per  cent  glucose,  though  it  is  not  produced  from 
these  fruits  but  generally  yielded  by  cooking  starch 
with  thin  sulphuric  acid.  Its  use  is  confined  largely 
to  the  production  of  confectionery,  liquor,  and 
tobacco  fabricates. 

Louisiana  produces  molasses  of  especial  excellence, 
among  which  is  the  celebrated  New  Orleans  molasses. 

HONEY. 

Honig,   Afie/,   Honing. 

Honey  is  the  well  known  sweet  sap,  which  the 
bees  extract  from  the  nectarine  of  the  flowers  and 
•which  they  deposit  in  wax  cells  after  having  prepared 
it  in  their  bodies.  Honey  is  an  article  of  trade  both 
in  combs  and  in  its  fluid  state.  Extracting  honey 
from  its  combs  is  usually  accomplished  by  a  centrif- 
ugal machine. 

Pure  honey  is  of  a  yellow  tint ;  its  consistency  is 
thick,  taste  sweet,  odor  slightly  aromatic,  and  dif- 
fers according  to  the  blossoms  from  which  it  is  gath- 
ered. White  clover  and  linden  blossoms  are  regarded 
as  capable  of  furnishing  the  best  sap  for  honey. 
When  fresh,  honey  is  transparent  and  slightly  sour; 
when  it  becomes  older  a  sour  reaction  takes  place, 


82  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

and  grape  sugar  begirus  to  develop,  which  appears 
white  and  forms  in  granules. 

Among  the  various  countries  which  export  honey 
Cuba,  Domingo,  Chili,  Italy,  and  France  are  the  most 
conspicuous.  While  in  the  United  States  enough 
honey  is  yielded  for  home  consumption  and  in  1892 
$78,000  of  the  product  was  exported. 

Honey  is  often  adulterated  by  the  use  of  glucose, 
syrup,  starch,  and  dextrin.  In  addition  to  being  an 
excellent  article  of  food,  honey  has  valuable  medicinal 
properties.  It  is  used  also  in  producing  a  beverage 
known  as  mead. 

LICORICE. 

Lakritz,    Liquiritiae,   Lakrits. 

Licorice  is  the  solidified  sap  of  the  sweetwood, 
which  is  yielded  in  Italy,  Spain,  France  and  Greece 
by  cooking  the  crushed  roots  until  the  liquid  has  the 
proper  consistency.  It  is  then  poured  into  barrels,  or 
is  formed  into  large  round  sticks  by  adding  gum 
arabic  or  dextrin,  and  comes  into  trade  packed  into 
boxes  with  laurel  leaves. 

The  Calabre  licorice,  which  is  exported  from  Naples, 
is  regarded  as  superior.  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
manufacturer. 

Good  licorice  has  a  clear,  black  color ;  when  marked 
the  cut  appears  brown.  Its  taste  is  pure,  and  it  is 
brittle.  When  immersed  in  water  25  per  cent  dis- 
solves. It  is  frequently  adulterated  by  the  use  of 
carrot  or  beet  sap,  starch,  detrin,  and  gelatine. 

Licorice  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  lung  troubles, 
and  is  often  dissolved  in  sal  ammonia.  Pure  licorice 
dissolved  in  sal  ammonia  or  oil  of  anis  is  sometimes 
formed  into  little  grains,  known  as  cachous. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Spirituous  Liquors 

Is  the  name  applied  to  all  liquids  containing  sugar, 
which  through  fermentation,  yield  alcohol  in  a 
greater  or  less  degree. 

WINE. 

Wein,  Via,  Vin. 

Wine  is  the  product  of  the  spirituous  fermentation 
of  grape  juice.  The  latter  consists  principally  of 
sugar  and  water.  After  pressing  the  juice  it  is  at 
once  placed  into  casks  and  goes  through  a  rapid 
preliminary  fermentation.  Through  fermentation 
a  large  part  of  the  sugar  is  converted  into 
alcohol  and  carbonic  acid ;  the  latter  escapes. 
After  six  or  eight  weeks  the  \vine  will  be  clear, 
having  expelled  all  the  yeast.  It  is  then  placed 
into  new  casks,  where  it  undergoes  an  after  fermen- 
tation by  which  tartar  is  ejected  from  the  wine  and 
carbonic  acid  created.  Six  or  eight  months  after 
this  fermentation  takes  place,  the  wine  is  again 
placed  into  fresh  casks,  where  it  undergoes  a  slight 
fermentation  the  coming  summer.  The  grapes  which 
contain  a  large  percentage  of  sugar  and  are  yielded 
during  a  hot  year  ferment  repeatedly,  during  three  or 
four  years,  before  they  become  permanent.  The  ordi- 
nary wines  are  filled  into  small  casks  and  the  finer 

83 


84  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

qualities  into  bottles.  Having  been  well  corked, 
they  are  now  fit  for  storing. 

White  wines,  yielded  from  the  green  grapes,  are 
more  or  less  yellow  and  often  brown.  Age  tends  to 
darken  the  color ;  the  same  result  is  accomplished  in 
young  wine  by  adding  burnt  sugar. 

The  red  \vines  obtain  their  color  from  the  grape 
skins  of  the  red  or  blue  berry,  which  is  originally 
blue  but  becomes  red  through  the  influence  of  acid. 

Through  long  storage,  good  wines  develop  a 
peculiar  aroma  known  as  bouquet.  The  presence  of 
this  aroma  determines  largely  the  worth  of  wine. 
The  peculiar  aromatic  taste  and  flavor  of  wines  is 
developed  by  fermentation. 

Sparkling  or  effervescent  wines  are  produced  when 
wine  is  filled  into  strong  bottles  before  it  is  com- 
pletely fermented  and  stored  away  in  the  cellar.  The 
carbonic  acid,  which  the  wine  generates,  is  dissolved 
in  the  liquid.  When  the  wine  has  given  off  its  yeast, 
the  cork  is  opened  and  the  bottle  inverted  to  permit 
the  yeast  to  flow  from  it;  the  bottle  is  then  tightly 
corked  and  sealed.  The  name  champagne  has  been 
given  this  wine  generally,  and  it  is  known  by  its 
"popping"  when  the  bottles  are  opened,  and  its 
effervescence. 

The  production  of  champagne  in  France  amounts 
to  23,000,000  bottles  yearly.  About  $5,600,000 
worth  of  this  product  was  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  1891. 

In  our  country,  New  York,  Missouri,  and  Ohio  are 
wine  producing  states.  But  the  richest  section  in 
this  particular  is  Middle  and  Southern  California. 
The  California  wine  is  such  that,  in  spite  of  the  con- 
servatism of  trade  and  of  the  opposition  of  inter- 
ested importers,  it  must  eventually  supplant  the 
various  European  products  in  our  market.  Sherry 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 


85 


is  the  principal  wine  of  Spain,  Port  of  Portugal, 
Burgundy  of  France,  and  various  white  wines, 
known  as  Rhine  wine,  of  Germany. 

Fat,  sweet  wines  are  often  artificially  clarified  by 
using  lime,  albumen,  blood,  or  gypsum.  Gypsum  is 
used  largely  in  France  and  Spain  to  lessen  the  acid 
in  the  wine  and  heighten  its  color. 

New  \vines  are  termed  young  or  green  wines ;  after 
a  year  of  storage  wines  are  regarded  as  old.  With 
age,  the  bouquet  of  wines  is  changed  as  the  quantity 
of  sugar  and  glycerine  is  lessened.  Wine  is  aged 
artificially  by  being  placed  in  bottles  and  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  about  150°  F.  These  wines  are 
known  as  Pasteurized  (according  to  Pasteur's 
method  of  conserving). 

After  complete  fermentation  the  contents  of  wine 
are:  water,  alcohol,  sugar,  gum,  coloring  matter, 
odorous  ethers,  various  acids,  salts,  and  lime. 

The  same  variety  of  wine  may  differ  as  to  qual- 
ity dependent  upon  the  soil,  climate  and  treatment 
during  cultivation.  As  especial  varieties  of  wine 
grapes,  we  may  name:  Riesling,  Tramin,  Gutedel, 
Austrian  or  Frank.  Burgundy  or  Blue  Clevner, 
Early  Burgundy,  Muscatel,  Orleans,  Malvasia. 
Riesling  is  cultivated  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhine ; 
Tramin  in  France  and  Austria. 

The  quantity  of  pure  alcohol  contained  in  wine  is 
as  follows : 


Port 20  to  25  percent 

Sherry 15  "   22        " 

Madeira 16  "   20 

Malaga 12  "   16 

Rhine  Wine  9  "   13 


Claret 9  to  11  per  cent. 

Moselle 8  "      9 

Champagne  8  "   12        " 
Burgundy. .11   "   13 
Cider 5  "      7 


Wines  which  are  rich  in  alcohol  are  termed  heavy 
wines,  though  this  does  not  determine  their  value. 


86  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Light  wines  are  often  preferred.  Usually  wine  is 
valued  in  the  reverse  ratio  to  its  contents  of  wine- 
acid.  Wines  containing  an  abundance  of  sugar 
(about  10  per  cent)  are  known  as  sweet  wines; 
when  the  opposite  is  the  case  they  are  termed  dry 
wines;  e.  g.,  Rhine  wine. 

According  to  their  color,  wines  are  red  and  white ; 
light  red  wines  are  named  Schieler. 

Wine  should  be  preserved  in  vessels  that  are  thor- 
oughly sealed  to  prevent  evaporation.  Care  should 
be  taken  not  to  subject  it  to  change  of  temperature. 

The  adulteration  of  wine  is  accomplished  by  mix- 
ing inferior  grades  with  better  qualities  or  frequently 
entirely  artificial  wines  are  produced  by  the  use  of 
alcohol,  vegetable  colors,  and  aromatic  spices. 

Cider. — Apple,  pear,  peach,  and  orange  cider  are 
yielded  by  pressing  the  juice  from  these  fruits. 
Cider  is  very  popular  as  a  beverage  in  this  country. 
It  contains  but  little  alcohol  before  fermentation, 
but  soon  becomes  acidulous  and  wine-like. 

BEER. 

Bier,  Bierre,  Ol. 

Beer  is  a  fermented  liquor  made  from  malt  with 
hops,  to  impart  a  bitter  flavor. 

To  produce  beer  malt  grain,  generally  barley,  is 
permitted  to  sprout  to  a  degree.  It  is  dried  by  arti- 
ficial heat.  A  part  of  the  malt  is  subjected  to  a 
greater  degree  of  heat  and  forms  the  "Caramel"  by 
which  the  beer  is  colored.  The  malt  is  then  freed 
from  the  germs  and  crushed.  According  to  the 
method  of  preparing,  beer  varies.  It  is  most  fre- 
quently prepared  by  the  Bavarian  method,  by  which 
the  malt  is  added  to  the  necessary  quantity  of  luke- 
warm water  and  from  time  to  time  a  portion  of  the 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  8? 

extract  is  poured  into  the  brewing  vat  and  heated  to 
the  boiling  point  and  then  poured  back  into  the  mash 
basins.  After  remaining  undisturbed  for  a  time  the 
worts  are  separated  from  the  grain.  In  order  to 
prevent  them  from  turning  to  acid  and  concen- 
trate, the  worts  are  kept  at  the  boiling  point  in  an 
open  vat  (brew-pan )  for  some  time.  After  shedding, 
to  a  large  extent,  the  insoluble  gluten,  the  hops  are 
added  and  the  mass  is  cooked  until  thesaccharometer 
(sugar-meter)  records  the  necessary  degree  (winter 
beer  9  to  11°,  summer  beer,  11  to  14°  C.).  The  beer 
is  now  placed  into  large,  wooden  cooling  vats,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  cooling  room  is  lowered  by 
producing  artificial  ice  to  enable  the  worts  to  reach 
the  proper  temperature. 

When  cool  the  worts  are  placed  at  once  into  fer- 
menting vats  and  are  treated  to  the  necessary  quan- 
tities of  yeast ;  the  process  of  fermenting  develops 
according  to  the  temperature  of  the  fermenting  cel- 
lar, and  usually  ends  in  from  four  to  ten  days.  The 
largest  portion  of  the  yeast  has  then  settled. 
Through  the  excessive  development  of  carbonic  acid 
much  of  the  yeast  appears  on  the  top  of  the  wrorts  in 
the  form  of  foam.  After  a  time  the  beer  is  filled  into 
barrels,  the  bung  of  which  has  been  removed,  and  is 
permitted  to  slowly  ierment  again  and  to  such  a 
degree  as  is  necessary  to  secure  the  desired  variety. 

Under-fermented  (German  untergahrigen)  beer  is 
filled  into  ordinary  barrels  and  placed  in  a  cellar,  the 
temperature  of  which  is  maintained  at  about  4-2° 
F.,  where  the  beer  is  allowed  to  ierment  and  over- 
flow ;  the  barrels  being  filled  with  young  beer  from 
time  to  time.  The  bungs  are  placed  into  the  barrels, 
and,  after  several  days,  the  beer  is  drawn  off  into 
small  well-pitched  kegs.  The  \veaker  beer  which  is 
brewed  during  the  winter  is  known  as  "  Winter  Beer.'* 


88  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Beer  which  remains  stored  for  a  time  before  being 
used  is  stronger  and  is  known  as  summer  or  lager  beer. 
The  exportation  of  beer  to  warm  countries  during 
summer  months  is  rendered  practical  by  drawing  it 
off  into  bottles.  A  very  small  quantity  of  salicylic 
acid  is  added.  Very  strong  beer  as  Bock  and  Salva- 
tor  are  known  by  the  name  of  "  Double  Beer." 

The  upper-fermented  (German  obergahrigen)  is 
generally  less  durable,  having  undergone  only  a 
slight  fermentation,  and  been  treated  with  hops 
sparingly.  These  varieties  are  usually  filled  into  bot- 
tles and  contain  a  liberal  supply  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
and  yeast  cells. 

Among  the  best  beers  produced  in  the  world,  of  the 
first  varieties,  are:  the  Bavarian  kinds,  Miinchener, 
Niirnberger,  Culmbacher,  Erlanger;  Austrian, 
Vienna ;  Bohemian,  Pilsner,  and  Leitmeritzer. 

Among  the  upper-fermented  beers  there  are  the 
celebrated  English  ale  and  porter.  Ale  is  a  beer  con- 
taining but  little  hops.  It  is  both  light  (pale)  and 
brown.  The  best  is  the  Burton  ale  of  Burton,  in 
Staffordshire.  Windsor  ale  is  pale  and  wine-like. 
Porter  is  a  dark,  strong  beer  in  the  preparation  of 
which,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  malt,  a  portion  of 
roasted  malt  is  used.  The  best  variety  is  London 
porter.  The  exported  variety  is  known  as  brown 
stout. 

Of  the  German  varieties  of  beer,  of  this  class,  is  the 
•white  beer  (of  wheat)  and  the  mumme,  a  thick, 
brown,  beer. 

The  elements  of  the  normal  beer  produced  from 
malt  and  hops  are,  excepting  water ;  alcohol,  glucose, 
dextrin,  oily  and  bitter  parts  of  hops,  albumen, 
traces  of  fat,  glycerine,  carbonic  acid,  coloring  mat- 
ter (caramel),  inorganic  parts  of  malt  and  hops, 
phosphoric  acid,  amber  and  milk  acid,  lime  magne- 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  89 

sia,  chloride  of  lime.  Many  surrogates  have  been 
used  instead  of  malt  and  hops,  during  later  times, 
quassia,  starch,  sugar,  burned  sugar  (for  caramel), 
cayenne  pepper  (pungency). 

Among  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States 
engaged  in  the  brewing  of  beer,  the  largest  product 
is  yielded  in  New  York,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Louis. 

The  Pabst  Brewing  Co.,  located  at  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  has  taken  rank  as  the  largest  lager  beer  pro- 
ducing concern  in  the  world. 

Germany  brews  about  13,000,000  barrels  of  beer; 
Great  Britain  nearly  15,000,000,  and  the  United 
States  over  7,000,000  barrels  annually.  In  Belgium 
the  consumption  of  beer  per  head  annually  is  about 
40  gallons ;  next  is  Great  Britain,  32  gallons ;  Ger- 
many, nearly  22  gallons ;  United  States,  about  10 
gallons. 

ALCOHOL,    WHISKY. 

German,  Alkohol,  Brann t  \vein ;  French,  JJau  de  vie. 

Any  liquid  which  has  undergone  spirituous  fermen- 
tation, e.  g.,  wine,  beer,  and  is  then  subjected  to 
distillation,  yields  a  liquid  consisting  of  alcohol  and 
spirits  of  wine. 

Absolutely  pure  alcohol  is  a  colorless,  combustible 
liquid  of  a  spirituous  odor  and  a  burning  taste, 
which  acts  as  a  deadly  poison  when  taken  internally 
in  a  quantity.  Thinned  with  water  it  intoxicates. 
Pure  alcohol  usually  contains  from  2  to  4  per  cent 
water,  and  should  be  kept  in  closed  vessels  as  it 
absorbs  moisture  readily  when  brought  in  contact 
with  the  air.  To  free  alcohol  from  every  trace  of 
water,  it  should  be  distilled  over  molten  chloride  of 
calcium,  and  the  air  excluded  from  it. 

Alcohol  prevents  the  rotting  and  fermentation  of 
all  organic  matter  as  it  deadens  the  germ.  Its  use 


90  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

as  a  preservative  for  fruits  is  widespread.  In  chem- 
istry it  is  employed  as  a  soluble  for  coloring  matter, 
gum,  salts,  sebacic  acids,  also  in  the  preparation  of 
chloroform,  chloral,  perfumes,  etc. 

The  "whiskies  of  commerce,  rum,  gin,  arrack,  etc., 
are  produced  from  alcohol  and  water  under  various 
conditions.  The  difference  which  exists  between 
these  liquors  is  not  confined  to  the  presence  of  water 
alone  but  also  to  other  ingredients. 

Grain,  or  corn  whisky,  is  produced  from  a  mash  of 
grain  and  malt  fermented  and  distilled.  Corn  whisky 
has  a  peculiar  fusil  odor,  and  is  *  regarded  most 
highly,  other  conditions  alike,  when  it  possesses  a 
pleasant  aroma. 

Potato  whisky  is  yielded,  by  a  similar  process, 
from  the  potato.  By  the  use  of  the  distilling  appa- 
ratus, the  distiller  yields  90  per  cent  of  alcohol  at  one 
distillation.  The  use  of  potato  whisky  is  commonly 
regarded  as  being  more  injurious  than  that  of  grain 
whisky. 

To  distinguish  it  from  ordinary  alcohol  there  is  a 
preparation  known  as  " Spirit"  from  which  all  fine 
liquors  and  essences  are  prepared;  e.  g.,  those  which 
are  free  from  fusil  oil  and  ether.  Spirit  is  manufac- 
tured in  and  exported  from  Germany. 

Molasses  whisky  is  prepared  from  molasses  which 
is  yielded  from  beet  sugar.  The  molasses  is  cooked 
with  sulphuric  acid  for  this  purpose,  and  then  goes 
through  the  process  of  fermentation  and  distilling. 
Maize  whisky  is  produced  largelv  in  the  United 
States. 

Winespirit  (spirit  of  wine)  is  superior  to  any  of  the 
foregoing  in  odor  and  taste ;  the  best  varieties  are 
produced  in  France  and  lately  in  California.  Eau  de 
vie,  simple  and  double,  serve  to  distinguish  between 
the  varieties.  The  best  is  usually  of  a  light  brown 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  91 

color,  though  it  becomes  darker  with  age,  and  is 
known  as  cognac.  Grand  champagne  is  the  name 
of  the  finest,  fine  champagne  of  the  second,  finis 
bois  of  the  third,  and  bons  bois  of  the  fourth 
variety  of  cognac. 

Rum  is  a  whisky  which  is  yielded  by  the  fermenta- 
tion and  distillation  of  molasses  or  of  the  fresh  sap 
of  sugar.  Rum  is  of  a  light  brown  color  and  pos- 
sesses a  peculiarly  pleasant  odor  and  taste.  The 
best  is  Jamaica  rum,  which  is  imported  from  Jamaica 
and  other  points  of  the  West  Indies. 

Taffia,  but  slightly  different  from  rum,  comes  into 
trade  very  rarely. 

Arrack  (usual  name  for  spirituous  liquors  in  East 
India)  is  similar  to  rum,  though  its  odor  is  still  more 
pungent.  It  is  produced  from  malted  rice,  to  which 
the  sap  of  various  palms  are  added.  The  best 
variety  is  the  arrack  of  Goa,  and  next  is  Batavia. 

Whisky  is  also  prepared  from  various  fruits,  as  of 
prunes,  cherries,  hollyberries,  mulberries,  figs,  and 
peaches. 

The  value  of  spirituous  liquors  depends  somewhat 
upon  their  alcoholic  contents.  Common  whisky  con- 
tains 36  to  45  per  cent,  arrack  50  to  60  per  cent, 
rum  78  per  cent,  raw  spirits  80  to  85  per  cent. 

The  best  test  of  ascertaining  whether  liquor  con- 
tains fusil  oil  is  to  thin  the  liquid  with  warm  water 
and  the  fusil  will  become  perceptible  by  its  bad 
odor. 

Aerometer. — In  order  to  ascertain  the  alcoholic 
contents  of  spirituous  liquors  the  aerometer  is  used. 
The  alcohol  meter  also  enables  us  to  determine  the 
amount  of  alcohol  contained  in  liquor  which  con- 
tains nothing  but  alcohol  and  water.  In  order  to 
understand  thoroughly  the  use  of  the  various  meters 


92  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

employed  in  testing  spirits  it  is  necessary  to  make 
alcoholometry  a  special  study. 

VINEGAR. 

Essig,    Vinaigre,   Attika. 

Vinegar  is  the  thin,  fermented  liquid  which  is 
extracted  from  various  alcoholic  liquors.  According 
to  its  origin  vinegar  is  known  as  wine,  beer,  fruit, 
malt,  honey,  or  mead  vinegar. 

The  most  preferable  variety  of  vinegar  is  the  wine 
vinegar,  especially  that  of  France,  e.  g.,  Orlean.  Its 
preparation  consists  in  simply  pouring  wine  into 
open  vats,  and  permitting  it  to  remain  a  few  weeks, 
in  which  time  it  usually  turns  sour.  Very  little  of 
the  white  wine  vinegar  is  pure,  but  is  usually  pre- 
pared with  acids. 

The  component  elements  of  vinegar  are  water  and 
acetic  acid  ;  in  addition  to  this  the  various  vinegars 
contain  distinctive  principles,  e.  g.,  wine  vinegar, 
wine  acid ;  fruit  vinegar,  apple  acid ;  beer  vinegar, 
phosphoric  acid,  etc.,  and  in  addition  salt  and  minor 
ingredients.  The  natural  wine  vinegar  has  a  yellow 
color. 

Vinegar  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  and  a  closed 
vessel.  Good  vinegar  possesses  a  pure,  sour  taste,  is 
not  sharp,  and  is  clear. 

A  peculiar  variety  of  vinegar  is  wood  vinegar, 
which  is  yielded  by  distilling  the  wood  in  a  closed 
vessel.  It  contains  acetic  acid  and  water  in  addition 
to  a  disagreeable  oil,  and  its  color  is  brown.  Wood 
vinegar  is  used  in  preserving  meat,  marking  steel,  and 
in  dyeing. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Dyestuffs. 

INDIGO. 

Indigo,  Indig,  Indigo. 

Indigo  is  a  dyestuff  which  is  yielded  from  the  genus 
Indigofera.  The  indigo  is  contained  in  the  sap  of  the 
plant.  The  cultivation  of  this  plant  is  carried  on  in 
the  East  and  West  Indies  and  in  the  southern  part 
of  North  America. 

The  plant  is  harvested  when  in  blossom  and  soaked 
in  water  until  it  ferments;  the  dissolution  of  the 
indican  colors  the  \vater  yellow  and  leaves  a  violet 
foam  upon  its  surface.  In  order  to  secure  the  blue 
(ind?go)  color,  the  solution  is  stirred  until  it  becomes 
turbid,  and  the  powder  is  then  permitted  to  settle. 
To  prevent  further  fermentation  the  solution  is 
cooked  again  and  is  permitted  to  settle,  then  the 
sediment  is  taken  from  the  basin  and  thoroughly 
dried  and  then  packed. 

The  indigo  of  trade  is  of  a  deep  blue  color,  and  is 
pressed  into  tablets  which  are  very  light  and  brittle. 
The  poorer  grades  are  usually  mixed  \vith  sand  and 
covered  with  mould. 

Indigo  burns  when  touched  to  a  flame,  and  changes 
into  a  dark  brown  liquid  when  held  over  smoking 
sulphuric  acid. 

93 


94  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

The  varieties  of  indigo  are  the  following :  Bengal, 
Java,  Kurpah,  Madras,  Bimlipatam,  Benares,  Tir- 
hoot,  Oude,  etc.  Java  indigo  comes  into  trade  in 
cases  of  200  to  300  pounds  and  also  in  one-half  and 
one-third  cases. 

WOAD. 

Waid,  Pastel. 

Woad  is  the  name  given  to  the  fermented  leaves  of 
the  woad-plant  (Isatistinctoria),  a  vegetation  which 
grows  wild  in  Southern  Europe  but  is  cultivated  in 
Germany.  The  leaves  are  gathered  several  times 
during  the  year,  partially  dried  and  fermented.  It 
appears  in  trade  in  balls  or  in  cakes.  The  balls  are 
of  a  yellowish  green  color  and  improve  with  age. 
The  value  of  the  plant  as  a  coloring  pigment  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  indigo. 

The  best  variety  of  woad  is  the  French  product, 
which  is  very  rich  in  coloring  matter. 

Since  indigo  has  been  generally  introduced,  the  use 
of  woad  has  decreased,  and  is  now  very  limited. 

LITMUS. 

Lackmus,  Tournsal  en  pate,  Lackmus. 

Litmus  is  a  blue  dyestuff,  which  appears  in  small 
cubes  or  long  prisms  of  a  color  of  more  or  less 
brightness.  Its  fractured  parts  are  dull,  earthy  and 
easily  broken  or  powdered. 

Litmus  is  produced  from  several  lichens  which 
grow  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the 
Canary  and  Azore  Islands,  as  well  as  on  the  coast  of 
England,  Spain,  France,  and  Italy. 

In  order  to  yield  litmus,  the  lichen  is  ground,  mois- 
tened, and  treated  with  potash,  lime,  ammonia,  and 
converted  into  dough.  The  mixture  is  left  to  ferment. 
At  first  it  takes  a  red  and  then  a  blue  color.  When 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  05 

the  mixture  has  reached  a  degree  of  fermentation, 
that  its  color  is  sufficiently  heightened,  it  is  mixed 
with  plaster  of  Paris,  and  is  then  dried  and  pressed 
into  the  proper  form.  The  manufacture  of  litmus  is 
confined  almost  entirely  to  Holland. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  litmus ;  the  best  is  of 
a  beautiful  blue  color  and  very  soluble  in  water.  It 
is  used  largely  as  a  bluing  for  washing ;  in  chemistry 
it  is  used  to  ascertain  the  acids  and  bases. 

LOGWOOD, 

Blauholz,  Bois  de  campech,  Blovad. 

A  red  dyewood,  produced  from  a  tree  of  the  family 
of  pod  plants,  which  grows  on  the  coast  of  the  West 
Indies  and  of  Campechy  bay. 

Only  the  marrow  wood  can  be  utilized,  for  which 
reason  the  sap  wood  is  peeled  off.  It  comes  into 
trade  in  long,  thick  pieces,  but  is  split  and  moistened 
by  dyers  to  make  it  available  for  use.  Fresh  log- 
wood is  of  a  dark  red  color,  being  firm  and  heavy. 
It  imparts  a  red  color  to  water  which  grows  darker 
as  the  coloring  matter  is  increased.  By  treating  log- 
wood with  various  acids  it  turns  into  various  colors, 
which  serve  as  dyes. 

The  best  sort  of  logwood  is  Laguna  Campechy ; 
inferior  kinds  are  Domingo,  Jamaica,  Honduras. 

Extract  of  logwood  is  manufactured  by  the 
Sanford,  Freeman,  and  Boston  mills  in  the  United 
States. 

Logwood  ink  is  produced  from  a  tincture  of  log- 
wood, chromate  ot  alum  and  the  addition  of  gum 
arabic  to  thicken  the  solution.  Stains  arising  from 
this  ink  maybe  removed  by  applying  a  light  solution 
of  muriatic  acid,  following  that  a  weak  solution 
of  chloride  of  lime,  followed  each  time  by  rinsing 


96  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

with  pure  water.     This  process  will  efface  stains  of 
any  dye. 

MADDER. 

Krapp,   Garance,   Krapp. 

Madder  is  the  root  of  an  herb-like  growth  native 
in  Asia  and  Southern  Europe,  and  is  often  called 
dyers-red. 

The  roots  are  a  number  of  inches  in  length  and  of 
the  thickness  of  a  pencil.  Their  skin  is  brown,  while 
the  interior  is  of  a  light  red  color.  The  ripe  root  is 
gathered  in  the  fall,  cleansed,  dried,  and  ground. 
Through  careful  preservation  in  closed  vessels  the 
quality  is  improved,  after  several  years  of  keeping. 

The  best  and  richest  variety  of  madder  is  the 
Smyrna  which  comes  into  trade  in  a  powdered  form 
under  the  name  of  alizari  or  lizzari. 

Ground  madder  is  frequently  adulterated.  It  is 
mixed  with  sand,  brick  dust,  ocher,  etc. 

Madder  is  used  in  dyeing  cotton  and  wool  Turkey 
red,  in  the  printing  of  calicoes,  and  in  medicine. 

SANDAL    WOOD. 

Sandelholz,   Bois   de  Sandal,    Sandel. 

By  this  name  there  are  two  varieties  of  dyewood 
in  trade,  namely,  the  yellow  (or  white)  and  red.  The 
former  comes  from  China,  and  is  but  little  used. 

Red  sandal  wood  comes  from  Ceylon  and  from 
West  India.  The  coloring  matter  of  this  wood, 
which  is  cut  into  sticks,  is  of  a  pithy  nature,  and 
must  be  dissolved  in  alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine. 

Sandal  wood  is  used  as  a  dyestuff,  tooth  powder, 
furniture  polish,  etc. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  97 

ARCHIL    AND    CUDBEAR 

Are  two  red  dyestuffs,  which  are  yielded  by  the  fer- 
mentation of  two  lichens,  and  are  distinguished  from 
litmus  only  by  the  fact  that  fermentation  is  not  as 
advanced. 

The  colorless  acids  contained  in  the  lichens  are 
changed  under  the  influence  of  ammonia. 

Archil  is  a  red  dough  which  is  kept  soft  by  moisten- 
ing it  with  ammonia ;  it  possesses  a  varied  odor  and 
an  alkaline  reaction.  The  preparation  of  this  dye- 
stuff  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Holland,  to  which  countries  the  weed  is 
brought  from  the  Canary  Islands  and  Sardinia. 

Cudbear  is  about  the  same  product  as  archil.  It 
was  yielded  from  lichens  in  Scotland,  but  the  method 
of  its  production  was  much  improved  by  Cuthbert 
Gordon  (hence  its  name).  It  is  a  violet  powder. 

Both  substances  are  especially  adapted  to  dyeing 
silks. 

PERNAMBUCO    WOOD 

Is  the  wood  of  varieties  of  Caesalpinia,  which 
grows  in  South  America.  Only  the  marrow  wood  of 
the  tree  contains  dyestuif.  It  is  brought  into  trade 
in  pieces  of  considerable  length  and  thickness. 

Pernambuco  wood,  or  real  Brazilian  wood,  has  a 
dark  color,  sinks  in  water,  and  takes  a  good  polish. 
It  bleaches  gradually  when  subjected  to  the  air. 

It  is  used  largely  in  dyeing,  and  is  sold  in  pieces 
and  powdered. 

Redwood  is  a  similar  dyestuff  which  comes  from 
Africa;  also  Camwood  from  Cuba. 

Redwood  extract  is  yielded  by  dissolving  red- 
wood. 


98  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

SAFFLOWER. 

Safflor,  Safran,  Saffran. 

The  dried  flowers  of  the  dyers'  thistle  which  is  pro- 
duced in  Egypt,  East  India,  and  in  parts  of  Europe. 

The  ware  appears  in  trade  in  the  form  of  narrow, 
yellow  leaves  which  are  elastic,  and  can  be  readily 
compressed.  Age  tends  to  injure  their  color,  and 
causes  the  leaves  to  become  brittle. 

Safflower  contains  two  dyestuffs,  red  and  yellow ; 
the  former  may  be  extracted  with  water,  though  it 
is  useless ;  the  latter  is  used  especially  in  coloring 
silks. 

The  best  safflower  is  the  Persian,  the  next  is  Ben- 
gal, which  occurs  in  round,  pressed  cakes. 

Carthamin  comes  into  trade  as  a  pure  dyestuff.  It 
produces  a  red  color.  Its  use  is  confined  to  coloring 
plates  and  in  manufacturing  cosmetics. 

Alkannin  is  a  red  dyestufif  soluble  in  spirits  of  wine, 
petroleum,  and  other  oils.  It  is  extracted  from  the 
root  of  the  alkanna  plant. 

ANNATO. 

Or/can,  R a  aeon,  Orleaa. 

A  reddish  yellow  dyestufF  which  is  yielded  from  the 
fruit  of  Bixa  orellana,  a  tree  which  grows  in  a  wild 
state  in  South  America,  and  is  cultivated  in  the 
West  Indies. 

The  fruits  are  gathered  from  time  to  time  and 
kneaded  thoroughly  in  water  and  permitted  to  fer- 
ment. The  colored  liquid  is  allowed  to  settle,  and 
the  water  is  then  poured  therefrom,  and  the  sediment 
is  cooked  and  formed  into  balls. 

Annato  comes  into  trade  packed  into  sheaves  of 
grass ;  its  color  is  dark,  and  its  odor  that  of  the 
violet. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  99 

Much  of  the  annato  dye  comes  from  Guadeloup, 
Cayenne,  and  Brazil.  Annato  is  used  to  color  oils, 
butter,  and  Chester  cheese. 

QUERCITRON   BARK. 

This  word  is  a  combination  of  the  words  Quercus 
citrina ;  the  name  applied  to  the  ground  bark  of  the 
Quercus  tinctoria,  native  in  North  America. 

It  comes  into  trade  in  the  form  of  coarse  and  fine 
•wood  powder,  which  has  a  yellow  color;  the  former 
is  of  a  lighter  color  and  richer  in  coloring  matter. 

This  dyestuff  was  introduced  into  Europe  by  Dr. 
Bancroft,  and  is  much  esteemed  for  its  richness  in 
coloring  matter  and  its  beauty.  Sometimes  the 
powder  is  adulterated  with  that  procured  from  the 
bark  of  other  oaks, 

It  is  exported  from  Philadelphia  in  barrels  and 
from  Baltimore  in  bags. 

Extract  of  quercitron  comes  into  trade  under  the 
name  of  flavin. 

FUSTIC. 

Fustic  is  the  name  of  the  West  Indian  dyers'  mul- 
berry. It  comes  to  us  in  pieces  and  in  the  form  of 
powder.  It  is  used  to  dye  both  in  yellow  and  in 
black. 

In  addition  to  this  there  are  other  yellow  dye- 
woods  known  as  yellow-woods.  Among  these  is  the 
Hungarian  yellow- wood,  or  younger  fustic. 

WELD 

Are  the  leaves  of  a  plant  which  is  cultivated  in 
parts  of  Europe  as  a  dyestuff.  When  it  blossoms  no 
longer,  it  is  cut,  dried,  and  packed  into  bundles.  It 
should  have  a  thin  stem  and  many  leaves  to  be  of 
use.  The  plant  contains  a  yellow  coloring  principle, 


100  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

known  as  luteolin.  Its  use  has  been  materially  les- 
sened in  Europe  since  quercitron  has  made  its  appear- 
ance in  trade. 

TURMERIC. 

Turmeric  is  the  dried  rootstalk  of  a  plant  resem- 
bling ginger-root,  Curcuma longa.  It  is  produced  in 
East  India,  China,  Java,  etc.  There  are  two  varie- 
ties of  turmeric  in  trade,  the  long  and  the  round. 

The  former,  which  occurs  most  frequently,  is  cylin- 
drical and  of  the  thickness  of  a  finger.  The  round 
turmeric  consists  of  a  thickened  rootstalk. 

Turmeric  must  be  of  a  bright  color  and  fresh. 
When  the  roots  are  black,  they  are  spoiled.  They 
contain  an  orange,  crystallized  coloring  principle, 
which  is  nearly  insoluble  in  \vater,  though  easily  dis- 
solved in  alcohol,  ether,  or  in  alkali.  It  is  used  in 
coloring  varnish,  liquors,  leather,  and  paper. 

GAMBOGE 

Is  the  name  of  a  yellow  gum  which  flows  from  the 
East  Indian  Gamboga  tree. 

The  gum  is  of  a  light  brown  color,  translucent, 
and  glistening.  When  dissolved,  it  produces  a  yel- 
low liquid,  which,  when  taken  internally,  acts  as  a 
violent  emetic. 

It  appears  in  different  qualities,  sometimes  clear 
and  pure,  but  often  mixed  with  starch  and  sand.  Its 
use  is  confined  to  the  manufacture  of  artists'  colors; 
formerly  it  was  used  as  a  medicine. 

DROP  COLORS. 

The  name  "drop  colors  "is  used  to  designate  all 
artificially  prepared  colors,  which  are  produced  from 
an  animal  and  vegetable  pigment  combined  with 
clay.  They  are  usually  so  produced  as  to  combine 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  101 

the  watery  extraction  of  the  vegetable  with  soda 
or  borax. 

Among  the  many  lakes  (drop  colors)  which  owe 
their  origin  to  vegetable  matter  the  most  important 
are  madder,  pernambuco,  and  scarlet  lakes. 

Drop  lakes  are  used  by  painters. 

ANALINE    DYES. 

Under  the  common  name  of  analine  dyes  are 
included  all  dyes  tuffs  which  are  produced  through 
the  medium  of  anthracite  coal  tar  by  a  process  of  dis- 
tillation. These  distilled  products  are  of  a  vast 
variety. 

The  beauty  and  the  excellent  dyeing  properties,  as 
well  as  the  cheapness  of  the  analine  dyes  has  resulted 
in  bringing  many  of  the  dyestuffs,  before  explained, 
into  partial  disuse,  though  some  of  the  latter  are 
superior  to  the  analine  dyes  in  durability  and  gen- 
uineness. Most  of  the  analine  dyes  arc  soluble  in  alco- 
hol, some  in  water,  ether,  benzine,  glycerine,  fatty 
and  ethereal  oils,  and  acids.  The  use  of  analine  dyes 
is  continually  increasing.  In  addition  to  their  use  in 
dyeing  and  printing  cloth,  analines  serve  to  color 
leather,  paper,  straw,  wood,  feathers,  celluloid,  mar- 
ble, liquors,  ivory,  soap,  ink,  varnish,  and  stain. 
Analines  come  into  trade  in  a  crystallized  condition, 
as  dry  powder,  and  rarely  in  the  form  of  paste  or  a 
solution.  These  dyes  are  largely  produced  in  the 
United  States  though  mostly  in  Germany. 

A  complete  description  of  the  method  of  preparing 
these  dyes  cannot  here  be  given,  as  the  processes  are 
too  manifold  to  make  even  an  attempt  at  anything 
like  an  accurate  description  possible,  within  the 
limits  of  space,  into  which  this  chapter  must  neces- 
sarily be  confined.  It  suffices  to  say  that  in  order  to 
understand  the  complicated  methods  involved  in 


102  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

producing  these  dyes,  a  knowledge  of  the  details  of 
chemical  action  is  absolutely  necessary. 

The  raw  material  from  which  these  dyes  are  pro- 
duced is  the  analine  oil,  which  contains  only  toluidin 
and  analine. 

The  pure  analine  is  used  in  producing  analine 
black ;  when  it  contains  but  little  oil  in  making  ana- 
line  blue ;  and  when  its  contents  of  oil  is  great  it 
yields  red  dyestuff. 

The  following  are  the  various  analine  dyes  in  use : 

Red  analine  dyes :  Fuchsin  is  the  oldest  analine 
dye  preparation.  Until  recently  it  contained  quanti- 
ties of  arsenic,  and  could  not  therefore  be  used  by 
confectioners,  but  it  is  now  designated  with  rubin 
(arsenic  free). 

Safranin  and  Congo  are  two  red  dyes  which  have 
a  beautiful  bright  color,  though  the  latter  cannot 
withstand  the  action  of  the  light. 

Panceaux.  This  name  is  applied  to  a  group  of 
analine  dyes  \vhich  vary  in  color  from,  scarlet  to  a 
light  yellowish  red. 

Blue  analine  dyes:  Azulin,  azurin,  bleu  de  Lyon, 
de  Paris,  de  Parnee,  form  copper-colored  glistening 
powders  or  lumps. 

Violet  analine  dyes :  The  handsomest  and  bright- 
est violet  is  the  Violet  de  Paris.  It  comes  into  trade 
in  the  form  of  golden  hued  lumps  or  ground  into 
powders  of  a  brown  color. 

Green    analine    dyes:    Emerald,  methyl,  brilliant. 

Yellow  and  orange  analine  dyes:  Phospin,  xan- 
thin,  and  curcumein.  These  dyes  come  into 
trade  in  the  form  of  powders,  yellow  and  brown, 
and  are  largely  used  in  dyeing  woolen  yarns. 

Black  analine  dyes :  Of  these  there  are  but  few. 
jetolin  is  the  best  known  variety ;  its  use  is  confined 
largely  to  manufacturing  printers'  ink. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
Resin  and  Balsam. 

Resins  are  certain  tree  saps  which  harden  in  the 
air  and  soften  or  melt  when  heated.  They  are  usu- 
ally soluble  in  spirits  of  wine  and  ethereal  oils,  though 
not  in  water.  Pure  resins  are  brittle  and  have  a 
glassy  fracture.  They  are  tasteless  and  odorless, 
though  some  contain  oils  which  impart  these  quali- 
ties. 

GUM    LAC. 

Gummilack,  Resine  laque,  Gummilackka. 

A  resin  containing  wax,  which  flows  from  various 
East  Indian  trees.  The  tree  is  tapped  by  the  sting  of 
a  bee,  which  is  enclosed  by  the  flow  of  the  sap 
and  changed  into  a  chrysalis.  The  insect  has  a  red 
dyestuffinits  body  which  is  imparted  to  the  sap. 

Gum  lac  comes  into  trade  partially  raw  or  pre- 
pared. Of  the  latter  there  are  the  following  kinds: 
Stick  lac,  seed  lac,  lump  lac,  shellac. 

Stick  lac  consists  of  the  dead  branches  of  the  lac 
tree,  which  are  surrounded  by  the  gum  in  a  thick 
layer,  containing  many  cells.  The  seed  lac  is  broken 
from  these  branches  and  is  formed  into  lump  lac  by 
melting. 

Shellac  consists  of  the  thin,  brittle,  orange,  red  or 
tan  colored  leaves,  which  are  yielded  by  melting 


103 


104  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

stick  lac  and  pressing  the  gum  through  sieves  and 
into  the  desired  iorm.  The  transparent  orange-col- 
ored shellac  is  considered  the  best.  Shellac  burns 
when  subjected  to  a  high  degree  of  temperature. 

Shellac  is  used  in  varnish,  putty,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  sealing  wax. 

MASTIC 

Is  the  resin  of  Mastic  pistacia,  a  tree  which  grows 
in  Portugal,  Spain,  and  Italy. 

Mastic  appears  in  trade  in  two  varieties,  grain 
mastic  and  assorted  mastic  (common  mastic). 

The  former  consists  of  drops  which  have  hardened 
on  the  tree  itself.  They  are  straw  colored,  trans- 
parent, brittle  grains  of  a  round  shape,  with  a  weak 
but  pleasant  balsam  taste.  In  warmth  they  melt 
and  give  off  an  aromatic  odor.  Mastic  is  insoluble 
in  water,  though  soluble  in  alcohol  and  turpentine. 

Mastic  is  used  as  a  varnish,  especially  for  fine 
paintings,  and  as  an  ingredient  in  putty  and  powder. 

BENZOIN 

Is  the  resin  of  the  Styrax  benzoin,  a  tree,  which 
grows  on  the  Sunday  Islands  and  in  Spain.  Good 
benzoin  is  translucent ;  its  fracture  appears  motley 
and  pebbly,  and  the  powder  derived  from  it  is  of  a 
brown  color.  It  possesses  a  balsamic  taste  and  an 
odor  resembling  vanilla. 

The  varieties  are  Siam,  Singapore,  Penang,  and 
Sumatra.  Siam  is  regarded  as  producing  superior 
benzoin.  Assorted  benzoin  is  distinguished  by  its 
brown  color  and  lack  of  white  grains. 

Benzoin  is  used  in  fumigating  and  washing,  and  is 
much  prized  on  account  of  its  excellent  aroma. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  105 

DRAGON'S  BLOOD. 

Dragon's  blood  is  the  red  resin  of  various  trees, 
native  in  Africa,  East  India,  and  South  America. 

The  resin  is  yielded  from  the  fruit  of  some  trees  and 
by  tapping  others. 

Dragon's  blood  conies  into  trade  in  various  forms. 
The  best  variety  is  of  the  size  of  a  hazel  nut,  and 
comes  bound  in  sheaves  of  grass.  It  is  of  a  dark  red 
color,  translucent  and  brittle. 

When  dissolved  in  alcohol,  its  color  becomes  blood 
red.  It  is  used  preferably  in  coloring  varnish. 

COLOPHONY 

Is  the  resin  of  the  American  and  European  pine, 
and  comes  into  trade  in  various  forms. 

The  freshly-gathered  fluid  which  flows  from  the 
tree  is  named  turpentine.  When  the  ethereal  oil  has 
evaporated,  the  sediment  hardens  and  forms thepine 
resin.  It  is  purified  by  being  molten  and  filtrated 
through  straw. 

When  the  turpentine  is  distilled  with  water,  and 
its  sediment  melted  in  the  air,  it  yields  a  firm,  glassy, 
transparent  pitch  of  a  brown  color  which  is  termed 
colophony.  It  is  produced  largely  in  this  country. 

The  various  kinds  of  pine  pitch  are  produced  in 
Germany,  Sweden,  Finland,  France,  and  especially 
in  North  America. 

Colophony  is  used  by  tinners,  paper,  and  soap 
manufacturers,  in  paving,  on  violin  bows  and  in 
pitching  vessels  and  barrels. 

Nearly  500,000  barrels  of  this  resin  were  exported 
from  the  United  States  in  1884. 

ASPHALT. 

Asphalt  is  a  combustible  mineral  pitch  of  a 
brownish  color  and  a  shell  like,  glistening  fracture. 


106  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

It  melts  in  a  temperature  equal  to  the  boiling  point 
of  water,  is  easily  ignited,  and  burns  with  a  bright 
flame.  The  odor  of  asphalt  is  bituminous.  It  is 
partially  soluble  in  spirits  of  wine,  while  it  is 
entirely  soluble  in  turpentine  or  linseed  oil. 

Of  the  origin  of  asphalt  but  little  is  known ; 
though  it  appears  to  be  the  decomposed  product  of 
organic  substances,  probably  produced  through  the 
gradual  oxidation  of  petroleum.  It  is  found  in  the 
newer  mountainous  regions  and  is  often  thrown  out 
by  the  water.  On  the  island  of  Trinidad  there  are 
layers  of  asphalt  of  considerable  magnitude,  also  a 
lake  upon  the  surface  of  which  large  masses  of 
asphalt  float  (the  asphalt  lake).  Most  of  the  asphalt 
came  from  the  Dead  sea  formerly,  where  it  was 
thrown  out  by  the  water,  the  waves  undoubtedly 
coming  in  contact  with  the  layers  of  the  substance. 
This  asphalt  is  known  as  Syrian ;  it  is  purely  black, 
and  is  commonly  considered  as  the  best.  The  South 
American  asphalt,  which  is  brought  from  the  shores 
of  the  Orinoco  in  large  quantities,  is  of  a  brownish 
black  color,  and  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Syrian. 

Asphalt  is  used  as  a  polish  for  wood  and  iron 
ware.  For  the  latter  purpose  a  solution  composed 
of  two  parts  of  molten  amber,  two  parts  ot  colo- 
phony, two  parts  of  asphalt  are  dissolved  in  six 
parts  of  linseed  oil  and  twelve  parts  of  turpentine. 

Mountain  tar,  or  maltha,  is  a  tough  mixture  of 
asphalt  and  petroleum. 

The  concrete  mass  used  in  paving  is  not  purely 
asphalt  but  a  mixture  of  mountain  tar,  sand  and 
lime  or  gravel. 

AMBER. 

Bernstein,  Luccin,  Bernstea. 

This  fossil  is  found  in  angular  and  round  pieces, 
and  has  a  shell-like  fracture  of  a  glossy  appearance. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  107 

Its  color  varies  between  a  very  light  yellow  and  a 
reddish-yellow.  In  heat  it  melts  and  finally  burns 
with  a  bright  flame,  developing  much  smoke  and  a 
pleasant  odor. 

Amber  is  thrown  out  by  the  sea  and  is  also  dug 
from  the  banks  at  the  shore.  It  is  found  on  the 
shores  of  the  North  Sea  in  Prussia  and  near  Boke- 
\vood  in  Australia,  and  in  small  quantities  in  Spain, 
Sicily,  etc. 

The  manner  of  securing  the  amber  from  the  sea  is 
by  dredging.  The  pieces  are  then  assorted  accord- 
ing to  their  size  and  quality. 

Amber  often  contains  insects  and  parts  of  plants; 
this,  as  well  as  its  chemical  and  physical  condition, 
show  that  it  is  a  vegetable  resin  which  has  become 
a  mineral  by  being  submerged. 

Copal  is  frequently  sold  as  genuine  amber. 

Amber  is  regarded  as  being  partially  a  precious 
stone.  Formerly  it  was  more  highly  esteemed  than 
now.  The  highest  price  is  commanded  by  the  pure 
transparent  amber.  Its  use  is  confined  to  the  manu- 
facture of  ornamerits  and  pipe-stems. 

The  largest  demand  for  amber  ornaments  exists  in 
Turkey,  Africa,  and  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

Its  manufacture  is  accomplished  by  means  of  steel 
tools  and  the  polish  is  added  by  the  use  of  pumice 
stone.  The  form  and  appearance  of  amber  may  be 
changed  by  boiling  it  in  linseed  oil. 

OTHER  DRY  RESINS. 

Among  the  large  number  of  resins  used  in  the  prep- 
aration of  medicine  and  for  other  purposes  the  fol- 
lowing are  worthy  of  mention: 

Elemi,  a  soft  yellow,  translucent  resin  which  has 
the  odor  of  dill,  and  is  found  in  East  and  West  India. 

Dammar,  the  resin  of  an  East  Indian  and  Aus- 


J(H  THE    KNOWLEDGE    OF   WARES. 

tralian  tree,  occurs  in  lumps  about  the  size  of  a  fist, 
generally  covered  with  dust  and  has  a  colorless  or 
yellowish  fracture.  When  dissolved  in  turpentine,  it 
produces  a  good  varnish. 

Guajak  is,  yielded  in  the  West  Indies.  Its  fracture 
is  of  a  dirty,  greenish  blue.  It  occurs  in  large  lumps. 
It  is  odorless  and  of  a  bitter  taste.  When  powdered 
it  is  gray,  but  becomes  green  when  subjected  to  the 
influence  of  light.  It  is  used  as  a  medicine. 

Sandarack  is  a  resin  yielded  from  a  tree  which  is 
native  in  Barbary.  It  is  light  yellow,  transparent, 
glossy,  covered  with  a  white  dust,  and  is  soluble  in 
alcohol  and  oils.  It  is  used  in  the  production  of 
varnish. 


CHAPTER  X. 
Nat iir;il  Balsams. 

When  resins  contain  much  ethereal  oil,  and  are 
thus  rendered  fluid  or  semi-fluid,  they  are  termed 
balsams.  The  natural  balsams  of  trade  are: 

TURPENTINE. 

Turpentine  is  the  balsam  which  flows  from  several 
varieties  of  the  pine  tree,  and  is  a  mixture  of  resin 
and  oil  of  turpentine.  Its  consistency  depends  upon 
the  specie  of  the  pine  from  which  it  flows. 

The  commonest  varieties  are  the  following: 

The  common  turpentine  is  taken  from  the  common 
pine,  Pinus  sylvestris  and  Pirius  abies.  It  is  of  a 
yellowish  color,  turbid,  thick,  and  exceedingly  tough, 
of  a  peculiar  odor,  and  a  bitter  taste.  It  is  yielded 
largely  in  the  South  Atlantic  states. 

Venitian  turpentine  is  taken  from  the  Pinus  larix. 
It  is  clear,  thin,  yellow,  resinous,  and  possesses  a 
strong  aromatic  odor.  It  is  yielded  largely  in  Tyrol, 
and  comes  into  trade  in  bottles. 

French  turpentine  is  taken  from  the  Pinus  marit- 
ima.  It  comes  from  the  forests  between  Bordeaux 
and  Bayonne.  The  liquid  is  both  thin  and  thick. 

The  Canadian,  Hungarian,  and  Cypress  turpen- 
tines are  also  found  in  trade. 

Turpentines  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  var- 

109 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

nish,  sealing  wax,  etc.    Canada  balsam  is  used  in 
preparing  putty  for  mounting  optical  instruments. 

The  foreign  trade  in  these  resinous  products,  in 
1888,  was  $6,000,000. 

BALSAMS. 

Among  the  fluid  balsams  of  commerce  the  follow- 
ing are  the  most  important : 

Copaiva  balsam  is  the  best.  It  comes  from  Brazil 
and  Venezuela,  and  is  yellowish  in  color,  of  the  con- 
sistency of  thick  oil  and  of  a  peculiar  repulsive  taste 
and  odor.  Its  use  is  confined  to  medicine. 

Mecca  balsam,  of  the  better  quality,  is  so  highly 
prized  in  Turkey  that  it  is  not  sent  out  into  trade. 
The  inferior  variety  which  reaches  us,  is  yielded  by 
cooking  the  branches  of  trees,  and  is  used  in  manu- 
facturing cosmetics. 

>  Peru  balsam  is  yielded  in  South  America  and  on 
San  Salvador.  It  flows  unassisted  and  is  of  a  light 
yellow  color.  In  the  air  it  hardens  and  takes  a 
brown  color.  It  is  prepared  by  cooking  the  branches 
of  the  trees.  Its  consistency  is  similar  to  that  of 
syrup,  and  its  odor  resembles  vanilla.  Peru  balsam 
is  used  in  producing  hair-oil,  chocolate,  etc. 

Fluid  storax  is  a  balsam  which  does  not  resemble 
hard  storax.  It  is  produced  in  Mexico  and  in  the 
warmer  regions  of  North  America  in  general.  It  is  a 
thick  fluid  possessing  a  pleasant  vanilla  odor. 

Tolu  balsam  is  of  a  reddish  yellow  tint.  It 
hardens  in  the  air  and  has  a  pleasant  orange-like 
odor.  It  comes  from  Honduras  in  tin  cans  and  is 
used  in  the  production  of  perfumes. 


CHAPTER   XI. 
Ethereal  Oils. 

Ethereal  oils  are  certain  fluids  which  impart  to  a 
plant  its  distinctive  odor,  and  may  be  extracted 
therefrom  by  distillation  or  by  pressure.  They  pos- 
sess a  strong  odor  and  aromatic  flavor.  They  are 
perfectly  soluble  in  alcohol,  though  not  in  water.  At 
a  low  temperature,  solid  substances  are  often  sepa- 
rated from  ethereal  oils,  so-called,  stearoptene.  The 
ethereal  oils  are  more  susceptible  to  distillation  than 
the  stearoptenes.  Ethereal  oils  burn  rapidly  with  a 
flashing  flame.  Most  of  the  ethereal  oils  consist  of 
water,  carbonic  acid,  and  oxygen. 

A  few  of  the  commonest  may  be  described  as 
follows : 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  the  ethereal  oil  produced  by 
distilling  turpentine  \vith  water.  Refined  turpentine 
oil  has  a  clear,  watery  appearance.  The  best  variety 
is  the  French,  while  the  American  and  Austrian 
follow. 

It  is  best  preserved  in  double  barrels,  so  that  the 
intervening  space  may  be  filled  with  water  in  order 
to  fully  prevent  the  entrance  of  air.  The  oxygen  of 
the  air  tends  to  cause  the  fluid  to  evaporate  and 
become  resinous. 

Juniper-berry  oil  is  produced  from  the  juniper  berry. 
It  is  clear  and  aromatic,  and  is  used  in  medicine  and 

in  the  preparation  of  liquor. 

111 


112  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Cinnamon  oil  is  produced  from  the  offals  of  cinna- 
mon bark  in  Ceylon  and  Java.  Its  color  is  yellow 
when  fresh  but  gradually  turns  brown,  and  its  taste 
and  odor  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  bark  from  which 
it  is  yielded.  Its  use  is  confined  exclusively  to 
flavoring. 

Oil  of  lavender  is  distilled  from  lavender,  in  France, 
Spain,  and  England.  It  has  the  odor  of  the  plant, 
and  is  used  in  the  production  of  toilet  articles,  espe- 
cially eau  de  cologne.  The  best  is  manufactured  in 
Herfordshire,  England. 

Oil  of  rose,  produced  exclusively  in  European  Tur- 
key, is  yielded  from  the  leaves  of  roses,  and  is  desig- 
nated by  the  name  of  attar  of  roses.  It  has  the  con- 
sistency of  butter,  and  melts  in  a  temperature  of 
about  75°  F.  Its  odor  is  very  pleasant.  The  adul- 
teration of  this  oil  is  accomplished  by  the  use  of  ger- 
anium essence,  citron  oil,  and  alcohol. 

Bitter  almond  oil  is  secured  by  distilling  bitter 
almonds,  and  is  used  in  pastry  and  perfumery  and 
in  the  production  of  cognac.  Naturally  this  oil  is 
poisonous,  though  a  process  has  been  devised  by 
which  the  poison  may  be  extracted  from  it. 

Orange  oil  is  of  several  varieties,  sweet  and  bitter. 
Orange  oil  is  produced  from  the  blossoms  and  leaves 
of  the  orange  and  peach  trees.  Its  use  is  confined 
largely  to  the  manufacture  of  perfumery. 

In  addition  to  these,  there  are  a  number  of  similar 
oils  used  in  the  production  of  medicine  and  perfume 
as  citron,  bergamot,  anis,  peppermint,  sassafras,  and 
wintergreen  oil. 

Toilet  water  and  cologne  are  produced  by  mixing 
alcohol  or  spirits  of  wine  with  a  small  quantity  of 
lavender,  bergamot,  or  other  oils. 

Hair  oil  is  a  compound  of  fatty  oil  with  various 
ethereal  oils. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  113 

CAMPHOR. 

Kampher,    Camphre,   Kamfert. 

Camphor  is  a  solid  substance  which  bears  resem- 
blance to  ethereal  oil,  and  is  contained  in  the  wood 
and  the  root  of  the  camphor  tree,  native  in  Formosa, 
Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  in  Japan.  The  camphor  tree 
%  of  Sumatra  is  filled  with  crystals.  In  order  to  secure 
the  camphor,  the  wood  of  the  tree  is  chopped  into 
pieces  and  placed  in  a  kettle,  covered  with  a  straw- 
lined,  wooden  cover,  in  which  it  is  boiled  until  all  the 
particles  of  camphor  have  evaporated  and  settled  in 
the  straw  covering,  where  it  forms  little  gray  crys- 
tals, which  are  packed  into  barrels  and  sent  out  into 
trade  under  the  name  of  raw  camphor. 

This  raw  camphor  is  purified  in  Holland,  England, 
and  Germany.  It  is  formed  into  flat  cakes,  and  pos- 
sesses the  name  of  refined  camphor. 

The  purified  camphor  is  a  firm,  white,  translucent 
mass  of  a  peculiar  odor.  It  is  very  soft  and  cannot 
therefore  be  pulverized.  In  ordinary  temperature  it 
usually  melts.  It  is  soluble  in  spirits  of  wine  (spirits 
of  camphor). 

Camphor  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  distributive  and 
heating  remedy,  also  in  producing  fireworks,  candles, 
celluloid,  and  as  a  preventative  against  moths. 

Menth  and  thym  oil  is  a  specie  of  camphor  which 
is  used  as  a  disinfectant,  instead  of  carbolic  acid. 

BENZINE. 

Benzine  is  a  thin,  colorless,  evaporating  oil  which 
properly  belongs  under  the  head  of  ethereal  oils.  It 
possesses  the  property  of  quickly  dissolving  fats  and 
removing  spots  of  grease  from  clothing.  It  is  yielded 
from  petroleum  and  possesses  a  peculiarly  strong  but 
not  unpleasant  odor. 


114  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

CREOSOTE. 

Creosote  is  a  peculiar  liquid,  contained  in  tar, 
made  from  beach  wood,  and  from  the  cinders  of  wood 
generally.  It  is  an  excellent  preventive  against 
decay,  and  is  used  in  smoking  meats  and  in  coating 
wood-work  and  railroad  ties.  It  is  also  well  known 
and  much  used  by  druggists. 


CHAPTER   XII. 
Resinous  Gams. 

Of  the  large  number  of  resinous  gums  which  come 
into  trade,  it  is  necessary,  to  make  mention  only  of 
the  most  important  varieties  as  follows : 

Asafoetida  is  the  concentrated  and  dried  sap  of  a 
vegetable  root  of  the  same  name.  It  consists  of  a 
collection  of  red,  yellow,  white,  and  brown  pieces, 
and  possesses  a  bitter  taste  and  garlic  odor.  It  can 
be  powdered  only  during  low  temperature.  It  is 
brought  from  East  India  and  Persia. 

In  East  India,  asafoetida  is  used  as  a  flavor ;  with 
us,  as  a  drug. 

Euphorbium  is  yielded  from  several  varieties  of 
gum  resin.  It  comes  in  small  pieces,  perforated  with 
many  holes  which  are  caused  by  the  thorns  of  the 
plant.  Its  outer  color  is  light  brown  and  its  interior 
is  yellowish,  and  the  dust  arising  therefrom  which 
comes  in  contact  with  the  skin  causes  inflammation. 

Myrrh.  This  gum  originates  from  an  Arabian 
plant.  It  consists  of  transparent  or  translucent 
grains  of  varied  sizes.  Its  color  is  nut  brown,  and 
it  is  quite  brittle.  In  water  it  is  soluble  to  a  limited 
extent. 

Myrrh  comes  from  East  India.  Its  best  variety  is 
myrrha  in  lacrymis,  which  occurs  rarely.  Myrrha  in 
granis  are  the  smaller  particles.  In  ordinary  myrrh, 
remnants  of  bark  are  often  discernible. 

The  less  important  gums  are,  gum  ammonia,  bedel- 
lium,  galbanum,  opopanax,  sagapenum,  scam- 
monium. 

115 


CHAPTER   XIII. 
Gams. 

Gum  is  a  non-crystallizable  vegetable  substance. 
It  is  fully  soluble  in  water,  but  cannot  be  dissolved 
in  spirits  of  wine.  What  is  known  as  gum  in  trade, 
does  not  all  belong  under  this  title,  but  is  frequently 
a  resin  or  a  gum  resin.  The  real  gums  are  gum 
arabic  and  Senegal. 

Gum  arabic  comes  from  Northern  Africa  and  the 
Arabian  desert.  It  flows  from  the  shrubs  and  trees 
unaided.  It  consists  of  pieces  of  various  sizes,  the 
largest  being  of  the  size  of  a  hazelnut.  It  is  trans- 
lucent, of  a  yellowish  tint,  pebbly  fracture,  both 
taste  and  odorless ;  when  moistened,  it  is  clammy.  It 
becomes  a  sticky  mixture  when  dissolved  in  water. 
The  best  variety  is  the  Turkish  gum ;  the  inferior 
grades  are  Australian  and  East  Indian  gum. 

Quite  different  from  gum  arabic,  is  the  specie 
known  as  gum  Senegal ;  it  is  native  in  the  regions  of 
the  Senegal  river  in  Africa.  Since  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  it  has  been  used  instead  of 
gum  arabic.  It  consists  of  larger  pieces  than  the 
latter,  some  of  which  weigh  one  pound  or  more,  but 
cannot  otherwise  be  distinguished  from  it.  Much  of 
this  gum  bears  the  name  of  the  harbor  from  which 
it  is  exported. 

This  gum  is  used  for  medicinal  purposes,  in  pro- 
ducing a  glossy  finish  on  the  surface  of  paper,  and  in 
preparing  mucilage. 

116 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  117 

For  technical  purposes  there  are  several  other  sub- 
stances which  serve  the  purpose  of  gums,  namely, 
bassa,  gedda,  and  dextrin. 

GUM  TRAGACANTH. 

Gumtni  Traganth,  Gomme  adragant,  Gummi  Dragant. 

Gum  tragacanth  is  yielded  from  the  tragacanth 
shrub,  a  growth  native  in  Greece  and  other  countries. 
Its  distinctive  difference  exists  in  the  fact  that  it  is 
not  soluble  in  cold  water  as  are  the  pure  gums,  but 
simply  thickens.  Its  principal  ingredient  is  vegetable 
phlegm. 

Tragacanth  consists  of  bent  thread-like,  or  of  broad, 
flat,  horny  pieces  of  a  yellowish  tint,  and  is  taste  and 
odorless.  In  hot  water,  it  can  be  dissolved  until  it 
attains  the  consistency  of  syrup.  Tragacanth  from 
Morea  consists  of  narrow  pieces,  while  that  of 
Smyrna  appears  in  the  form  of  broad  flat  pieces. 

It  is  assorted  according  to  color  and  purity,  and 
serves  the  purpose  of  gums  generally. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha. 

Both  of  these  substances  are  of  great  technical 
value,  and  are  usually  classified  among  the  resins 
and  gums,  but  differ  from  these  in  many  particulars, 
especially  in  the  fact  that  they  are  not  soluble  in  the 
same  liquids,  and  possess  peculiar  characteristic 
qualities;  among  these  are  elasticity,  flexibility, 
etc. 

CAOUTCHOUC. 

Kautschuk,   Caoutchouc,   Kautschuk. 

This  plant  substance  can  be  obtained  from  the 
milky  secretion  of  numerous  vegetables,  in  such  quan- 
tities as  to  make  the  yield  profitable.  Several  varie- 
ties of  trees  and  climbing  plants  which  grow  in 
India,  South  America,  and  Africa  are  especially  rich 
in  the  milky  fluid  from  which  caoutchouc  is  produced. 
The  manners  of  yielding  this  product  are  various, 
though  the  most  advantageous  method  is  used  in 
Brazil  and  is  described  thus :  After  the  bark  of  the 
tree  has  been  thoroughly  cleansed,  a  clay  trough  is 
attached,  and  several  incisions  are  made  into  the 
bark ;  the  sap  flows  from  these  into  the  trough  and 
is  caught  in  flasks,  composed  of  hollow  pumpkins  ; 
the  drops  which  adhere  to  the  tree  are  also  gathered 
in  a  separate  vessel  and  furnish  an  inferior  quality. 
The  sap  is  then  poured  into  forms  where  it  is  dried 

118 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  119 

by  natural  or  artificial  heat.  Owing  to  the  great 
demand  for  caoutchouc  a  number  of  experiments 
have  recently  been  made  with  the  milky  saps  of  sev- 
eral domestic  plants,  though  they  have  not  been 
attended  by  any  degree  of  success. 

The  value  of  the  India  rubber,  by  which  name 
caoutchouc  is  commonly  known  in  this  country, 
imported  into  the  United  States  has  been  upward  of 
$15,000,000  per  year. 

The  West  Indian  varieties  of  India  rubber  appear 
in  trade  in  the  form  of  cakes  and  thin  slabs ;  this 
variety  is  superior  to  that  of  Java  and  Africa.  The 
outer  appearance  of  the  pieces  is  rough,  black,  and 
porous ;  the  pores  are  filled  with  a  watery  or  milky 
fluid,  and  the  substance  has  several  translucent  lay- 
ers. Sometimes  the  milky  fluid  is  exported,  and  the 
rubber  prepared  at  home. 

India  rubber  of  a  superior  variety  is  highly  elastic. 
In  low  temperature  it  becomes  hard  but  melts  at  a 
temperature  of  286°  F.,  and  becomes  a  tar-like  mass 
which  may  be  distilled  and  made  to  serve  as  an  oil 
to  protect  against  rust.  India  rubber  is  not  soluble 
in  water  or  spirits  of  wine,  but  dissolves  in  turpentine, 
petroleum,  benzole,  and  chloroform. 

The  use  of  India  rubber,  formerly  nearly  exclusively 
confined  to  the  production  of  erasers,  has  broadened 
until  it  has  become  very  manifold.  It  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  water  and  air  tight  materials,  band- 
ages, elastic  threads,  tubes,  etc. 

The  preparation  of  India  rubber  for  technical  pur- 
poses begins  by  cutting  it  into  pieces  and  cooking  it 
from  two  to  three  hours,  which  must  be  done  care- 
fully in  order  to  remove  all  watery  ingredients, 
thus  preventing  the  possibility  of  the  appearance  of 
air  bubbles  on  the  surface  of  the  rubber  when  vul- 
canized. 


120  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Para  caoutchouc  requires  no  cleansing  though  the 
inferior  varieties  must  be  subjected  to  the  following 
purifying  process :  It  is  kneaded  between  two  slowly 
moving  rollers  through  which  a  stream  of  water  is 
flowing,  and  is  thus  purified  from  earth,  sand,  and 
bark ;  when  clean  it  is  rolled  out  into  thin  sheets  and 
dried  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  This  process  has 
important  bearingupon  the  success  which  is  attained 
\vhen  the  rubber  is  vulcanized  at  a  later  period,  and 
it  usually  occupies  from  eight  to  fourteen  days. 

The  development  of  the  caoutchouc  industry  really 
dates  from  the  time  when,  through  the  medium  of 
a  chemical  agency,  the subst an cewas  secured  against 
the  influence  of  heat,  acids,  and  solubles,  with  added 
elasticity.  The  substance  which  imparts  these  qual- 
ities to  caoutchouc  is  sulphur.  The  treatment  of 
caoutchouc  with  sulphur  is  known  as  vulcanizing, 
and  the  material  thus  treated  is  known  as  vulcanized 
caoutchouc. 

The  process  employed  in  vulcanizing  is  exceedingly 
manifold  and  conforms  to  the  use  for  which  the  vul- 
canized product  is  designed.  The  selection  of  the 
temperature  most  favorable  to  this  process  is  a  very 
difficult  task,  and  each  manufacturer  has  a  distinct 
method  in  this  particular.  The  methods  which  pro- 
duce favorable  results  then  become  the  secret  of  the 
manufacturer. 

The  usual  manner  of  vulcanizing  is  to  mix  the  puri- 
fied India  rubber  with  sulphur  and  subject  it  to  a 
temperature  of  from  270  to  300°  F.  in  the  vulcaniz- 
ing kettle,  which  is  fed  with  vapor  under  the  pres- 
sure of  two  or  three  atmospheres. 

Vulcanized  caoutchouc  is  used  in  producing  elastic 
tubes,  plates,  bands,  overshoes,  balloons,  etc.  These 
articles  are  first  formed  from  the  caoutchouc  and 
then  vulcanized,  as  the  vulcanized  material  does  not 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  121 

adhere  and  cannot  therefore  be  moulded.  Frequently 
the  grayish  color  of  the  vulcanized  caoutchouc  is 
changed  to  an  intense  black  by  the  application  of 
heat  and  a  thin  solution  of  lye.  By  mixing  the 
material  with  a  larger  quantity  of  sulphur,  and 
keeping  it  under  the  influence  of  a  higher  tempera- 
ture from  six  to  eight  hours,  the  India  rubber  hard- 
ens and  becomes  ebony-like.  It  appears  in  trade  in 
the  form  of  combs,  canes,  penholders,  electric  appa- 
ratus, etc. 

India  rubber  is  imported  principally  from  Brazil, 
Guatemala,  Assam,  and  Asia,  Borneo,  Sumatra, 
Java,  and  Madagascar. 

GUTTA-PERCHA. 

A  substance,  similar  to  caoutchouc,  though  slightly 
different,  is  imported  from  Malacca  and  Borneo,  and 
is  known  as  Getah-pertja  among  the  Malays.  It  is 
the  dried  milky  sap  of  Isonandra  gutta,  a  tree  of  the 
family  of  the  Sapotaceen.  It  comes  into  trade  in 
unclean  red  blocks,  with  a  thread-like  fracture,  and 
particles  of  bark  still  clinging  to  it. 

Gutta-percha  possesses  a  weak,  unpleasant  odor. 
It  is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  thinned  acids. 
Its  characteristics  are  elasticity,  flexibility,  and 
leatheryness ;  it  differs  from  caoutchouc  in  its  inferior 
elasticity.  It  is  soluble  in  turpentine,  sulphuric  acid, 
benzole,  and  chloroform.  When  subjected  to  a  tem- 
perature of  from  175  to  210°  F.,  gutta-percha 
becomes  soft  and  pliable.  By  kneading  in  hot  water, 
it  is  purified  and  Jiardens  immediately  when  suf- 
ficiently cool.  In  its  soft  condition  it  can  readily  be 
formed  into  various  articles,  tubes,  vessels,  soles, 
surgeons'  instruments,  covering  for  wire,  matrixes 
for  wood  engraving.  The  purified  mass  appears 
nearly  white  but  can  easily  be  colored  red,  black, etc. 


122  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

By  vulcanizing  its  characteristics  appear  to  still 
better  advantage.  England  furnishes  much  manu- 
factured gutta-percha  in  manifold  forms.  The  mate- 
rial is  also  manufactured  into  various  articles  in  this 
country. 

A  product  very  similar  to  gutta-percha,  which 
has  been  tested  with  a  view  to  furnishing  a  substitute 
for  this  article,  is  known  as  Balata ;  as  yet  it  is  but 
an  experiment. 


CHAPTER  XV. 
Vegetable  Fats. 

According  to  the  consistency,  fats  are  divided  into 
three  groups,  namely,  liquid  oils,  butters,  and  tal- 
lows. The  liquid  oils  differ  from  the  ethereal  oils ; 
tallows  are  firm  fats,  and  butters  are  between  these 
and  are  easily  effected  by  the  temperature.  The 
chemical  composition  of  the  vegetable  fats  does  not 
differ  materially  from  those  of  the  animal  fats. 

OLIVE  OIL. 

Olevenol,  Huille  d'olive,  Olivo/ja. 

Olive  oil  is  the  oil  which  is  yielded  from  the  fruit 
of  the  common  olive  tree  by  pressure.  The  tree  is 
native  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Asia  and  was  trans- 
planted from  there  to  Greece,  Italy,  Peru,  and 
Mexico.  Its  cultivation  is  carried  on  most  exten- 
sively on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  ripe  fruit  is  crushed  in  a  horse  or  water  power 
mill  and  is  then  subjected  to  pressure,  several  times, 
until  a  quantity  of  oil  has  been  extracted  from  it, 
though  it  is  not  possible  to  yield  all  the  oil  which  is 
contained  in  the  fruit  in  this  manner. 

It  is  customary  in  some  places  not  to  press  the 
olives  when  fresh,  but  allow  them  to  ferment 
for  some  time,  before  attempting  to  extract  the  oik 

123 


124  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Iii  this  manner  a  large  quantity  of  oil  is  yielded,  and 
its  quality  is  equal,  it  not  superior,  to  that  obtained 
by  the  former  process.  In  Saliil  (Tunis),  the  olives 
are  crushed  and  immersed  in  water,  and  the  oil 
which  rises  to  the  surface  is  skimmed  off.  By  this 
process  the  oil  which  is  yielded  bv  the  first  skim- 
ming is  the  best. 

The  oil  obtained  by  the  first  pressure  bears  the 
name  of  young  oil,  and  is  of  the  finest  quality;  it  is 
of  a  greenish  color,  and  has  the  odor  and  taste  ot 
the  fruit.  The  oil  which  is  skimmed  from  the  surface 
of  the  water  is  of  a  yellow  color  and  more  inclined 
to  spoil  than  the  former.  These  oils  bear  French 
titles, — huiles  d'olive  surfine  and  fine.  The  best 
varieties  of  table  oils  are  termed  huiles  comes- 
tibles. 

Olive  oil  is  largely  subject  to  adulteration ;  com- 
monly by  the  use  of  peanut  oil,  cotton-seed  oil, 
beach-nut  oil,  etc.,  and  especially  with  lard  oil.  To 
detect  the  adulteration  is  generally  difficult  and  can 
best  be  accomplished  by  comparison  with  reliable 
samples  of  the  genuine  article,  in  regard  to  color, 
taste,  and  odor. 

The  common  olive  oils  appear  in  trade  in  barrels, 
while  the  table  oils  come  in  bottles. 

In  addition  to  its  common  use  as  an  article  of 
diet  and  for  its  healing  properties,  olive  oil  is  used 
in  preparing  a  soap,  which  is  known  in  trade  as  the 
Venetian,  Marseilles,  or  Spanish  soap,  and  is  brought 
from  Italy  and  Spain. 

Sweet  oil  is  yielded  by  pressing  out  the  dregs  left 
after  the  olive  oil,  of  the  better  quality,  has  been 
extracted  from  the  olives.  The  various  kinds  of 
sweet  oils  serve  as  table  oils,  illuminating  oil,  for 
lubricating,  producing  soap,  etc. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  125 

SEED    OIL. 

The  various  oils  which  are  yielded  by  pressing 
them  out  of  the  seeds  of  plants  or  by  sulphuric 
acid  and  distillation  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
which  may  be  distinguished  from  each  other  by  the 
condition  they  maintain  toward  the  air.  One  variety 
dries  in  thin  layers,  by  absorbing  the  oxygen  in  the 
air,  into  a  hard  mass;  the  other  remains  soft  but 
passes  into  a  decomposition,  which  is  termed  rancid  ; 
this  occurs  also  to  dry  oils,  and  firm  vegetable  fats, 
•when  kept  in  the  air  in  a  mass.  The  former,  which 
on  account  of  their  dryness  serve  as  varnishes,  etc., 
are  known  as  dry  oils;  the  latter,  however,  are 
classed  as  rancid  or  fluid  oils.  The  dry  oils  become 
firm  \vhen  brought  in  contact  with  nitro-muriatic 
acid,  while  the  fluid  oils  remain  so  under  the  same 
treatment.  In  their  firm  condition  these  oils  are 
termed  elaidin.  Among  the  oils  which  form  only  an 
imperfect  elaidin  are  cotton  seed,  beech  nut,  sun- 
flower, peach  kernel,  and  almond  oil. 

DRY  OILS. 

Linseed  oil  is  a  light  yellow  oil  when  pressed  cold, 
and  of  a  brown  color  when  extracted  from  the  hot 
seeds.  The  former  is  the  better.  It  does  not  solidify 
in  an  ordinary  temperature,  but  it  requires  a  low 
temperature  to  cause  it  to  get  hard.  It  is  used  pref- 
erably in  oil  color,  varnishes,  and  the  like.  The 
dregs  are  formed  into  linseed  oil  cakes,  which  fur- 
nish excellent  food  for  cattle. 

To  produce  varnish,  the  linseed  oil  is  heated  to 
about  600°  F.,  but  after  it  has  reached  a  temperature 
of  480°  F.,  the  following  ingredients  are  added  :  red 
lead,  litharge,  carbonate  and  sulphurate  of  lead, 


126  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

and  manganese,  and  is  permitted  to  boil  from  one- 
half  to  one  hour. 

The  richer  the  varnish  is  in  metaloxide  the  more 
readily  will  it  harden  when  used. 

Glazing  putty  is  a  mixture  of  varnish  and  chalk. 
A  mixture  of  varnish  and  red  lead  produces  a  putty 
for  steam  engines  and  gas  pipes,  and  varnish  and 
sugar  or  glycerine  is  used  for  printers'  rollers.  Ben- 
zoine  or  petroleum  thinned  are  termed  oil  finish. 
Other  varnishes  for  finishing  are  produced  by  dis- 
solving shellac  in  spirits  of  wine  or  turpentine. 

Nut  oil,  from  walnuts,  is  of  a  yellowish  color.  It 
is  odorless,  but  of  a  pleasant  taste.  It  is  used  as  a 
table  oil  and  in  producing  varnish. 

Hemp  oil,  from  hemp  seed,  is  of  a  greenish-yellow 
color  when  fresh,  but  turns  yellow.  It  is  of  but 
little  value  owing  to  its  exceeding  dryness,  and  its 
use  is  confined  largely  to  the  production  of  soap. 

Poppy-seed  oil  is  similar  to  sweet  oil  in  taste  and 
color.  It  solidifies  in  low  temperature  only.  It  is 
used  as  a  table  oil  and  in  producing  fine  varnishes. 

Cotton  seed  oil  is  produced  from  cotton  seeds,  and 
constitutes  an  extensive  article  of  export  from  the 
Southern  states  of  our  country.  When  thoroughly 
clarified  its  quality  is  equal  to  that  of  olive  oil,  and 
is  largely  used  to  replace  it. 

The  oil  of  sunflowers,  grape  seeds  furnish  articles 
of  trade. 

FLUID  OILS. 

Rape-seed  oil  is  used  largely  as  an  illuminating  oil 
in  the  European  countries.  It  is  produced  from  a 
variety  of  seeds.  This  oil  possesses  a  yellow  color, 
and  a  tendency  to  solidify  at  a  low  temperature.  It 
is  usually  refined  before  making  its  appearance  in 
trade. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  127 

Almond  oil  is  produced  from  sweet  and  bitter 
almonds  by  cold  pressure.  It  is  clear,  yellow,  and 
odorless,  and  of  a  very  mild  taste.  It  is  produced 
in  France,  Italy,  England,  and  Germany,  and  is 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  toilet  articles  and 
medicines. 

Sesam  oil  is  produced  from  sesam  seed,  the  prod- 
uct of  an  oriental  growth.  The  oil  is  colorless,  and 
used  in  adulterating  olive  oil.  Its  manufacture  is 
carried  on  in  France  and  Germany. 

Peanut  oil  is  yielded  largely  from  the  peanut,  and 
is  produced  principally  in  the  United  States.  Its  use 
as  a  table  oil  is  quite  extensive,  as  well  as  in  prepar- 
ing soap. 

Recinus  oil  is  produced  from  the  seed  of  the  won- 
der-tree (Recinus  communis),  which  grows  in  East 
and  West  India.  It  is  thick,  yellowish,  odorous, 
tasteless,  and  possesses  the  quality  of  complete  solu- 
bility in  alcohol.  Its  use  is  confined  to  the  manu- 
facture of  perfumes,  soaps,  and  medicines. 

Mustard  oil  is  yielded,  by  cold  pressure,  from  the 
seeds  of  the  black  mustard.  Croton  oil  is  produced 
from  croton  seed,  and  is  a  strong  laxative. 

SOLID  VEGETABLE  FATS. 

Several  vegetable  fats  are  more  or  less  firm  or  solid 
in  ordinary  temperature,  similar  in  consistency  to 
butter,  lard,  and  tallow ;  among  these  are  the  fol- 
lowing: 

Cocoa  butter  is  yielded,  through  pressure,  from  the 
cocoa  bean ;  it  has  the  odor  and  taste  of  cocoa.  It 
melts  at  90°  F.,  but  does  not  become  rancid  easily. 

Palm  butter  is  an  orange-colored,  seedy  fat  which 
has  a  violet  odor.  It  becomes  rancid  very  easily 
when  subjected  to  the  air.  This  fat  is  brought  into 
the  European  market  in  large  quantities  from  Africa 


128  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WAKES. 

and  South  America.  Its  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
soap  is  very  extensive.  In  Holland,  the  fat  is 
extracted  from  the  imported  palm  seeds. 

Cocoanut  oil  is  manufactured  from  the  kernel  of 
the  cocoanut,  which  is  cooked  until  it  has  yielded 
up  its  oily  contents ;  the  latter  is  white  and  firm, 
but  melts  at  a  temperature  of  90°  F.  It  becomes 
rancid  very  easily.  Its  use  in  the  manufacture  of 
fine  soaps  is  very  extensive.  The  production  of  the 
oil  is  carried  on  in  Europe  generally. 

VEGETABLE    WAX. 

Vegetable  wax  comes  into  trade  in  many  varieties, 
which  are  used  preferably  in  the  manufacture  of 
candles,  and  in  the  adulteration  of  beeswax. 

Japanese  wax  is  the  riiost  important  of  these;  it  is 
somewhat  harder  than  beeswax,  and  possesses  a 
resinous  odor,  being  yielded  from  the  fruits  and 
leaves  of  a  resinous  plant,  native  in  Japan.  The 
pieces  of  this  wax  which  occur  in  trade  are  flat  and 
round,  and  are  covered  with  a  thin  white  film.  A 
much  harder  wax  is  produced  in  China,  which  is  also 
found  in  trade. 

Chinese  vegetable  tallow  is  yielded  fromthetallow 
tree  which  is  native  in  China,  West  India,  and  Florida. 
It  is  hard,  brittle,  and  dissolvable. 

Brazilian  wax,  or  palm  wax,  comes  from  Northern 
Brazil.  Its  color  is  yellowish  green,  and  it  contains 
many  small  air  cells.  Ocuba  wax  is  yielded  from  the 
fruit  of  the  Ocuba  tree,  which  grows  on  the  shores  of 
the  Amazon.  It  is  softer  than  beeswax. 

Myrtle  wax  is  the  firm  green  wax  of  the  fruit  of  the 
Myrica  cerifera  in  the  United  States,  while  it  is 
yielded  from  other  trees  in  Neugranda  and  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
Yegetable  Textiles. 

Textiles  are  fibers  which  are  capable  of  being 
woven.  Textiles  are  divided  into  two  classes,  vege- 
table and  animal  fabrics. 

COTTON. 

Bfium \volle,    Cotton,    BomuJl. 

Cotton,  an  important  vegetable  fiber,  is  extensively 
cultivated  in  various  parts  of  the  globe  within  the 
thirty-fifth  parallel  of  latitude. 

Cotton  is  produced  on  all  the  species  of  the  genus 
Gassypium .  The  species  are  partly  shrubs  and  partly 
herbaceous,  and  either  perennial  or  annual ;  they  are 
natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and 
America,  but  their  cultivation  extends  far  into  the 
temperate  zone.  They  all  have  leaves  with  from 
three  to  five  lobes,  which  in  a  very  young  state  are 
often  sprinkled  with  black  points,  and  rather  large 
flowers,  which  are  mostly  yellow,  but  sometimes  in 
whole  or  in  part  purple ;  the  flowers  very  soon  fall 
oft;  they  grow  singly  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves  and 
are  surrounded  at  the  base  by  three  large,  heart- 
shaped,  cut  or  toothed  involucral  leaves  or  bracts 
partially  growing  together  as  one.  The  fruit  is  a 
three  to  five  celled  capsule,  springing  open  when  ripe, 

9  129 


130  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

and  containing  numerous  seeds,  enveloped  in  cotton, 
which  is  generally  white  but  sometimes  yellow,  and 
issues  elastically  from  the  capsule  after  it  bursts 
open. 

The  cultivation  of  the  cotton  plant  is  very  simple 
and  can  be  accomplished  on  the  poorest  soil.  In  Sep- 
tember, or  earlier,  the  capsules  ripen  and  burst  open 
with  a  report.  The  cotton  is  then  freed  from  the 
hull  by  hand  and  from  its  seeds  by  a  machine  (cotton 

gin)- 

The  cleaned  cotton  is  brought  into  trade  in  various 
forms,  and  its  quality  depends  upon  the  country  in 
which  it  has  been  yielded.  The  fineness,  length,  elas- 
ticity, and  silkiness  of  the  fibers  and  its  cleanness 
determine  the  quality  of  the  cotton. 

In  order  to  be  able  to  test  it  thoroughly,  a  handful 
should  be  pressed  between  both  hands  and  then 
drawn  out;  thus  the  length  of  the  fibers  becomes  visi- 
ble. When  the  fibers  are  long,  the  cotton  is  termed 
long  stapled ;  when  short,  short  stapled. 

The  various  kinds  of  cotton  in  trade  are  named 
after  the  country  in  which  they  are  produced,  but  of 
each  of  these  there  are  several  varieties ;  the  common 
designation  for  these  varieties  in  the  cotton  markets 
are  the  English  names  of  fine,  good,  fair,  middling, 
ordinary,  and  inferior,  with  the  intermediate  names 
of  good  fair,  middling  fair,  good  middling,  low  mid- 
dling, good  ordinary,  etc.  The  best  qualities  are 
yielded  upon  the  best  adapted  soil  at  the  first  gath- 
ering of  capsules.  This  cotton  is  usually  free  from 
hairy  fibers  and  uniform  in  appearance. 

North  American  Cottons. — These  take  rank  among 
the  best  varieties  of  cotton  produced,  and  provide, 
next  to  the  Spanish,  the  European  manufacturers. 
They  are  generally  well  prepared  and  cleaned. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  131 

The  preferred  variety  is  the  Sea  Island  cotton, 
which  is  produced  in  the  moist,  sandy  soil  of  the 
coast  islands  of  Georgia.  It  is  soft,  yellowish,  shiny, 
and  composed  of  small,  loose  flakes.  It  is  very 
clean. 

Next  to  Sea  Island,  the  Louisiana  cotton  is  the 
best  North  American  variety.  It  is  soft  and  white 
and  the  prime-ware  is  free  from  shells  and  seeds.  It 
is  shipped  from  New  Orleans  in  large,  tightly  pressed, 
cubical  bales,  containing  from  400  to  650  pounds. 

Texas  and  Alabama  or  Mobile  cotton  is  of  a  shin- 
ing white  color  though  not  as  long  and  soft  as  the 
Louisiana  variety.  Florida  cotton  is  inferior  to  the 
foregoing ;  it  is  the  poorest  of  these  varieties.  It  is 
gray,  extremely  coarse,  or  fine  in  fiber.  The  prime- 
ware  possesses  a  dull  white  color. 

Georgia  or  Upland  are  the  names  of  the  North  and 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia  product.  These  vari- 
eties are  usually  very  white,  though  not  as  soft  and 
shiny  as  the  Louisiana  product. 

South  American  Cottons. — The  Brazilian  variety 
is  the  finest  cotton  on  the  market  if  greater  care 
were  taken  in  preparing  it  for  trade.  The  Pernam- 
buco  cotton  belongs  to  the  Brazilian  variety  and 
ranks  to  Sea  Island  in  order  of  quality.  Its  fleece  is 
uniform,  of  a  yellow  tint,  long,  and  soft.  Ceara  is 
harder  and  more  brittle.  Alagoas  is  next  to  Pernam- 
buco.  Bahia  is  an  excellent  product ;  while  Macaio, 
Maranham,  Paraibo  are  inferior  grades  of  this 
variety. 

The  colony  of  Guyana  furnishes  several  grades  of 
cotton  which  are  somewhat  inferior  to  the  Brazilian 
product.  Demerary,  Berbice,  Surinam,  Essquibo, 
and  Cayenne  are  among  the  products  of  this 
country. 


132  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Columbian  cotton  is  produced  in  the  northwestern 
part  of  South  America,  namely,  Venezuela  and 
Columbia.  The  grades  of  this  variety  have  the  fol- 
lowing names :  Varinas,  Barcelona,  Puerto,  Cabello, 
Caracas,  Laguayoa,  Cumana,  Valenzia,  and  Carta- 
gena. They  are  inferior  to  the  Brazilian  cotton,  but 
•would  be  superior  to  the  average  North  American 
variety  if  carefully  cleaned  and  prepared  for  the 
market. 

The  Peruvian  cotton,  of  about  the  same  grade  as 
the  Columbian,  has  the  following  grades:  Lima, 
Payta,  Piana. 

West  Indian  Cottons. — These  cottons  are  of  an 
excellent  quality,  scarcely  inferior  to  the  best  North 
American  grades ;  though  their  unclean  ness  injures 
their  quality.  The  various  grades  are  Domingo, 
Porto  Rico,  Guayanilla,  Cuba,  St.  Martinique,  Cura- 
cao, Jamaica,  Barbadoes,  Trinidad. 

East  Indian,  especially  the  long  stapled  grades, 
are  known  by  the  name  of  "Surate."  It  is  shorter 
than  the  American  varieties  and  generally  unclean. 
Its  importation  into  Europe  and  China  is  very  exten- 
sive. The  grades:  Dharwar,  Broach,  Dhollerah, 
Oomrawattie,  Mangarole,  Comptah,  Madras,  West- 
ern Madras,  Scinde,  and  Bengal. 

African  Cotton. — Egypt  furnishes  the  market  with 
a  few  grades ;  among  them  is  Alexandria,  inferior, 
and  Maco,  a  very  good  grade.  The  Sea  Island  Maco 
is  yielded  from  seeds  of  Sea  Island  cotton,  though  it 
is  inferior  in  quality  to  the  American  product. 

European  Cotton. —  The  best  grade  comes  from 
Spain  and  is  named  Motril.  Sicily  and  Turkey  pro- 
duce cotton  which  is  usually  of  a  very  inferior 
quality. 

Australian  Cotton. — New  South  Wales,  Queens- 
land, and  New  Zealand  produce  some  cotton,  but 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  133 

not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  it  of  importance 
in  trade. 

Cotton  furnishes  the  cheapest  material  for  wearing 
apparel.  Through  the  perfection  of  the  machinery 
employed  in  its  manufacture  the  cultivation  of  cot- 
ton has  spread  very  widely  in  the  United  States,  as 
will  be  seen,  from  the  increased  production,  in  the 
following  tabulation ;  the  yield  of  cotton  is  per  1,000 
'bales  (450  Ibs.  each) : 


1824 509 

1834 1,205 

1840 2,178 

1852 3,015 

1860 4,676 

1862 4,800 

1865* 3,656 

1866 2,152 


1867 1,952 

1868 2,440 

1870 3.154 

1871 4,352 

1874 4,250 

1880 5,730 

1883 7,000 


The  exportation  of  cotton  from  the  United  States 
amounted  to  about  6,410,000  bales  in  1892.  The 
principal  ports  for  the  exportation  of  cotton  are 
New  Orleans,  Mobile,  Galveston,  Charleston,  Savan- 
nah, Bombay,  and  Calcutta. 

During  the  last  few  years,  a  mixture  of  gun-cotton 
and  camphor  has  made  its  appearance  in  trade  under 
the  name  of  celluloid,  serving  as  a  substitute  for 
ivory,  horn,  and  coral.  In  the  production  of  this 
material,  damp  cotton  is  ground  fine  and  mixed  with 
100  parts  or  more  of  camphor  and  is  pressed  into 
thin  sheets  by  means  of  hydraulic  pressure.  The 
material  is  exceedingly  combustible,  which  can  be 
lessened  by  the  addition  of  white-lead  or  other  chem- 
icals. It  is  used  largely  in  the  production  of  collars, 
cuffs,  billiard  balls,  buttons,  combs,  and  fancy 
articles.  The  flexibility  of  celluloid,  and  the  fact 

•The  Civil  War  was  the  cause  of  the  great  falling  off  of  the  produc. 
tion  of  cotton  in  this  country  during  this  peripd. 


134  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

that  it  can  easily  be  softened  and  moulded,  tends  to 
spread  its  use  very  rapidly. 

COTTON    YARN. 

/ 

BaumwolJengarn,  Coton  file,  Bomullsgan. 

Cotton  is  spun  by  hand  and  by  machine.  The 
former  comes  from  the  Orient  and  is  known  as 
"hand-made;  "  the  latter  is  produced  in  America  and 
Europe,  and  is  termed  "machine-made." 

The  process  of  spinning  cotton  by  machine  is  as 
follows:  On  arrival  at  the  mill,  the  cotton  first 
enters  the  mixing  room,  where  it  is  sorted,  and  the 
various  qualities,  which  are  often  contained  in  a 
single  purchase,  laid  out  in  layers  of  equal  extent, 
one  over  the  other,  and  trodden  close  together.  In 
this  manner,  two  descriptions  of  cotton  are  some- 
times placed  in  one  mixing.  When  surat,for  instance, 
is  scarce  and  dear,  and  short  stapled  low  American 
plentiful  and  cheap,  spinners  of  what  are  called 
"coarse  numbers  "  invariably  use  a  mixture  of  both 
growths ;  the  same  of  other  kinds,  provided  there  is 
an  approach  of  equality  in  length  of  fiber.  Cotton 
of  different  shades  of  color  is  sometimes  woven 
together  in  order  to  produce  particular  yarn.  A 
quantity  of  this  being  then  raked,  as  it  is  called, 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  side  portion  of 
the  side,  a  portion  of  each  layer  is  thus  secured.  This 
is  carried  to  the  scutching  or  willowing  machine,  by 
which  the  cotton  is  cleansed  from  impurities,  as 
sand,  seeds,  leaves,  etc.,  through  which  it  passes,  and 
is  then  wound,  in  its  fleecy  state,  upon  a  large 
wooden  roller  to  be  transferred  to  the  carding 
machine.  (This  machine  was  perfected  by  Ark- 
wright.)  The  sliver  is  next  passed  through  the 
drawing-frame  which  removes  all  inequalities,  and 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  135 

reduces  the  bands  to  one  uniform  thickness.  Here, 
also,  several  of  the  slivers  are  joined  together  so  as 
to  form  a  continuous  cord,  which  is  still  further 
lengthened  and  increased  in  fineness  by  the  roving- 
machine. 

The  firmly  wound  yarn  is  termed  twist.  The  yarn 
is  wound  into  "hanks,"  which  are  assorted  accord- 
ing to  their  \veight  and  fineness  into  bundles. 

Good  cotton  yarn  must,  in  addition  to  fineness, 
possess  firmness  and  smoothness,  be  round,  uni- 
formly thick,  free  from  knots,  and  elastic. 

The  largest  and  best  cotton  manufactories  are  in 
England,  Germany,  Austria,  Belgium,  Switzerland, 
Russia.  The  United  States  and  France  produce 
cotton  yarn. 

COTTON  GOODS. 

Baumwolleazeuge,  Toiles  de  cotoa,  Bomullstyger. 

All  the  cotton  cloths,  of  which  there  are  very  many 
varieties,  are  of  three  kinds,  namely,  smooth, 
twilled,  and  velvety. 

The  plain  or  smoothly  woven  cotton  cloth  is  com- 
posed of  two  threads,  one  running  lengthways  (link) 
and  the  other  cross  ways  (connective).  The  threads 
cross  each  other  alternately,  and  the  cloth  is  either 
firmly  or  loosely  woven. 

Among  the  finely  woven  cotton  cloths,  the  calicoes 
are  the  most  conspicuous ;  of  these  there  are  three 
kinds : 

Plain  calico,  raw,  or  bleached,  usually  used  for 
prints. 

Sarsenet,  used  for  lining,  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Printed  calicoes,  percale,  cretonne,  Indian,  are 
smooth,  and  printed  in  colors  upon  a  white  or  col- 
ored background. 


136  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

In  addition  to  these  there  are  the  following  grades 
of  cloth  among  the  finely  woven  fabrics :  Cambric, 
shirting,  Nanking,  gingham,  sheeting,  and  many 
other  varieties. 

The  loosely  woven  grades  of  cotton  cloth  are 
batiste,  jaconet,  organdie,  muslin  (thin),  used  as 
dress  goods  and  drapery ;  gauze,  tarlatan  (very  thin), 
used  in  covering  articles ;  babbinet  a  variety  of  fine 
lace. 

The  designed  or  patterned  cotton  cloths  are 
wrought  by  skillfully  arranging  the  threads.  They 
may  be  produced  either  plain  or  colored  upon  white 
or  colored  backgrounds.  The  following  are  impor- 
tant varieties  of  this  kind : 

Drill,  made  in  imitation  of  the  linen  drill ;  domes- 
tique,  not  patterned ;  dimity,  heavily  woven,  ribbed 
or  patterned,  white  material;  ribs,  finely  ribbed 
material;  damask  a  fine  curled  material  with 
beautifully  patterned  flowers,  etc.;  sateen,  a 
cloth  woven  in  imitation  of  satin;  barchent, 
made  in  imitation  of  woolen  kalmuk;  pique,  a 
smooth,  finely  woven  fabric,  which  may.  be  white  or 
dyed  in  one  or  more  colors ;  creoise,  a  closely  woven 
calico,  though  not  smooth,  but  twilled  on  one 
side. 

Velvety  Cotton  Fabrics. — These  fabrics  consist  of 
a  wooly  or  hairy  coating  woven  upon  a  smooth  or 
twilled  basis.  The  coating  is  termed  flor  or  pol. 
The  pol  is  arranged  in  various  forms ;  sometimes  it 
stands  and  often  it  is  smoothed  down  and  pressed 
closely  to  its  basis. 

Cotton  or  Manchester  velvet  comes  into  trade  in 
all  colors  and  qualities,  and  is  designed  to  furnish  an 
imitation  for  silk  velvet. 

Excellent  white  and  colored  cotton  fabrics  are  pro- 
duced in  England,  the  United  States,  Germany, 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OP  WARES.  137 

France,  and  Switzerland.  The  United  States  ranks 
second  in  the  quantity  of  cotton  cloth  produced,  and 
the  number  of  spindles  is  steadily  increasing,  which  is 
not  true  of  England. 

Cotton  bat  ton  consists  of  loose  layers  of  carded 
cotton  coated  with  a  solution  of  lime. 

FLAX. 

Flachs,    Lin,   Lin. 

Flax  is  the  fiberous  material  yielded  from  the 
stalks  of  the  flax  plant,  which  is  cultivated  exten- 
sively in  Europe. 

Before  its  seed  has  fully  ripened,  the  plant  is  plucked, 
dried,  and  freed  from  its  seed  pods.  In  order  to 
loosen  the  fiber  from  the  rind,  the  stalks  are  steamed 
from  sixty  to  ninety  hours,  and  are  then  dried,  when 
the  bark  can  easily  be  removed  by  breaking  or  strip- 
ping it  off.  By  means  of  a  flax-comb,  it  is  fully 
cleansed  and  prepared  for  spinning. 

The  flax  of  commerce  is  of  various  grades  and  quali- 
ties dependent  upon  the  condition  of  the  soil,  treat- 
ment in  preparing,  etc. 

Flax  is  grown  chiefly  in  Russia,  Germany,  Austria, 
Italy,  France,  Belgium,  Ireland,  The  Netherlands, 
and  to  a  small  extent  in  Canada,  and  the  United 
States. 

Good  flax  must  be  of  a  yellowish  white,  greenish 
white,  or  silver  gray  color,  soft,  shiny,  and  clean. 
The  fibers  must  be  long  and  firm. 

HEMP. 

Hanf,  Chanvre,  Hampa. 

Hemp  is  a  coarser  fiber  than  flax.  It  is  yielded  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  latter,  and  its  use  is  confined 
to  the  production  of  coarser  articles  such  as  rope 


138  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

and  oil  cloth.  The  cultivation  of  hemp  is  carried  on 
in  Poland,  Russia,  Germany,  and  France.  Two- 
thirds  of  the  supply  of  the  United  States  comes  from 
the  Philippine  Islands.  The  total  value  of  the  import 
of  hemp  amounted  to  $7,354,000  in  1892.  Good 
hemp  must  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  soft  and  possess 
uniformly  long  fibers.  It  comes  into  trade  in  various 
colors;  pearl  and  silver  gray,  greenish  and  yellow 
are  the  commonest  tints. 

Care  must  be  exercised  in  baling  hemp,  as  self- 
combustion  easily  sets  in.  The  bales  should  be 
opened  even  in  a  slightly  warm  temperature.  Hemp 
can  best  be  preserved  in  a  dry,  well  ventilated  place. 

LINEN'  YARNS. 

Hanfgespinste,  Fil  de  lin,  Lin  garn. 

Linen  threads  are  spun  both  by  hand  and  by 
machine.  Both  flax  and  hemp  are  treated  in  the 
same  manner,  though  the  latter  yields  coarser 
threads. 

In  the  mechanical  process  of  spinning,  the  dry 
spun  yarns  are  distinguished  from  those  which  are 
wet  spun.  The  latter  are  spun  as  fine  as  250  and 
finer.  After  the  yarn  has  been  spun,  it  is  reeled. 
Many  threads  wound  around  the  reel  constitute  a 
skein.  Skeins  are  of  various  lengths  in  England, 
usually  300  yards.  The  number  attached  to  the 
skeins  shows  how  many  are  required  to  make  a 
pound;  e.  g.,  No.  20,  at '300  yards,  equal  6,000 
3rards.  Two  hundred  skeins  form  a  bundle,  and 
from  6  to  12  bundles,  according  to  the  fineness  of  the 
yarn,  a  bale. 

The  linen  threads  are  twined  from  several  separate 
fibers,  and  are  often  colored.  The  flander,  or  lace 
thread,  is  especially  noted. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF   WARES.  139 

The  best  flax  and  hemp  threads  come  from  England, 
France,  Belgium,  Saxony,  Bohemia.  Silesia  fur- 
nishes more  thread  than  any  other  country. 

LINEN   GOODS. 

Flachsgewebe,  Toiles  tie  lin,  Lintyger. 

Flax  and  hemp  yarns  furnish  the  material  for 
various  grades  of  linen  cloth,  such  as  drill,  jacquard, 
and  damask. 

The  manufacture  of  linen  has  reached  its  greatest 
perfection  in  France  and  the  Netherlands,  where  the 
stimulus  to  produce  fine  yarns  for  the  lace  makers 
has  given  rise  to  such  care  and  attention  in  the 
cultivation  and  preparation  of  flax,  that  in  point  of 
fineness  of  fiber  it  is  unequaled.  Consequently 
France,  Belgium,  and  Holland  have  long  enjoyed  a 
well-deserved  reputation,  and  in  the  article  of  lawn 
and  linen  cloth,  the  French  are  unrivaled.  In  the 
ordinary  kinds  of  linen,  our  own  manufactures  are 
rapidly  improving. 

The  chief  varieties  of  linen  goods  are  lawn,  the 
finest  of  flax  manufactures,  formerly  exclusively 
made  in  Belfast,  Armagh,  and  Warringstown ;  cam- 
bric, damask,  draper.  Of  the  finer  plain  fabrics, 
sheetings  are  the  most  important  in  England.  The 
chief  places  of  their  manufacture  are  Belfort,  Armagh, 
and  Leeds.  Common  sheeting  and  toweling  are 
very  extensively  manufactured  in  Scotland.  Ducks, 
huckabacks,  osnaburgs,  crash,  and  tick  are  very 
coarse  and  heavy  materials,  some  fully  bleached, 
others  unbleached  or  nearly  so.  They  are  chiefly 
made  in  Scotland.  Some  few  varieties  of  velvet  and 
velveteen  are  also  made  of  flax  at  Manchester,  and 
much  linen  yarn  is  used  as  warp  for  other  materials. 


140  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

The  industry  of  producing  linen  is  as  yet  in  its 
infancy  in  the  United  States,  and  is  confined  to  a  few 
manufactories. 

VARIOUS    PLANT    FIBERS    USED    FOR    SPINNING. 

Jute  is  a  very  coarse  vegetable  fiber  from  which 
gunny  bags,  used  in  transporting  coffee,  rice,  cotton, 
etc.,  are  manufactured.  Its  color  is  yellow,  and  it  is 
extensively  produced  in  East  India,  China,  and  the 
Southern  states.  Gunny-bags  are  manufactured  in 
Dundee,  Scotland.  Mattings  and  heavy  curtains  are 
often  produced  from  jute,  especially  in  Germany. 
Jute  cannot  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  rope,  as 
moisture  tends  to  rot  it. 

Sisal  grass,  or  sisal  hemp,  sometimes  called  henni- 
quen,  is  the  leading  crop  of  Yucatan,  and  forms  an 
important  export  to  the  United  States.  The  trade 
in  this  article  increased  from  a  few  thousand  dollars 
to  more  than  $5,000,000  in  1888.  The  grass  is  used 
in  making  cordage,  hammocks,  and  similar  articles. 

CHAIR    RATTANS. 

Spanish   Kohr,    Rottings   a   meubles,    Spanskt   Ror. 

The  common  chair  rattan  is  furnished  by  the  shaft 
of  a  reed-like  growth,  the  stronger  of  which  are 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  canes  and  the  weaker 
in  seating  chairs.  The  swamps  of  East  India,  Sun- 
day Islands,  and  the  Phillipines  are  especially  prolific 
in  the  production  of  this  ware.  The  cane  has  a  yel- 
low color,  and  is  often  stained  and  polished.  It 
comes  into  trade  in  bundles  of  from  twenty-five  to 
thirty  pounds  in  weight. 

Bamboo  is  the  shaft  of  the  Arundo  Bambus,  a  West 
Indian  growth.  The  young  thin  shoots  are  used  in 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  141 

the  manufacture  of  walking  canes,  \vhile  the  longer 
and  stouter  varieties  come  into  trade  as  fishing 
poles. 

SEA  WEED. 

Scegras,    Vnree.   Sjdgras. 

Under  this  name  there  appears  in  trade,  the  long 
elastic  blades  of  grasses  which  grow  in  the  sea.  The 
best  variety  of  grass  of  this  sort  grows  on  the  shores 
of  the  Adriatic  and  Baltic  seas. 

Seaweed  is  of  a  grayish- brown  color,  elastic,  and 
curled.  The  old  blades  become  brittle  and  bleached. 
It  is  brought  into  trade  in  balls  of  Irom  200  to  300 
pounds. 

Seaweed  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  horse-hair  in 
upholstery.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  the  latter,  but 
is  also  inferior  in  durability,  and  less  elastic. 

Another  vegetable  material  for  upholstery  which 
occurs  in  trade  is  known  as  Mexican  fiber. 

It  is  yielded  from  the  fiberous  leaves  of  a  Mexican 
and  West  Indian  tree. 

STRAW    WARES. 

In  the  production  of  straw  hats  and  braided  work, 
several  varieties  of  straws  are  used.  The  common 
varieties  used  for  this  purpose  are :  Wheat  straw, 
that  of  summer  wheat,  and  especially  the  Marzolane 
straw  yielded  in  Florence,  Italy,  from  which  the  cele- 
brated Florence  hats  are  made.  It  is  used  unsplit. 
Next  to  this  is  the  Swiss  wheat  straw,  r\re  straw, 
barley,  and  oat  straws.  The  finest  straw  for  hats 
comes  into  trade  raw  or  braided  into  ribbons  from 
Italy  and  Switzerland.  Before  using,  it  must  be 
bleached,  split,  and  then  piled  to  dry ;  though  the  lat- 
ter treatment  is  dispensed  with  when  the  grade  of 
straw  is  very  fine. 


142  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Straw  hats  are  either  entirely  braided  from  straw 
or  partially  braided  and  sewed.  They  are  assorted 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  straw  and  numbered. 

The  leading  manufactories  of  straw  goods  are  in 
Florence,  Switzerland,  and  Saxony. 

The  leaves  and  wood  of  some  trees  also  furnish 
material  for  hats.  Panama  hats,  much  esteemed  for 
their  lightness  and  elasticity,  are  largely  worn  in 
South  America,  and  are  produced  from  the  leaves  of 
a  shrub  palm.  The  Mexican  sombrero  is  made  from 
the  leaves  of  the  palmetto. 

In  addition  to  the  straw  braided  ware,  basket, 
and  braided  work  is  made  of  willows  and  is  generally 
known  as  willow  ware.  Baskets,  mattings,  carriage 
tops,  and  the  like,  are  classified  among  this  specie  of 
ware.  The  manufacture  of  straw  and  willow  \vare 
is  increasing  each  year  in  this  country. 

PAPER. 

This  well  known  fabric  is  usually  composed  of 
vegetable  fibers  minutely  divided  and  recombined  in 
thin  sheets,  either  by  simple  drying  in  contact,  or 
with  the  addition  of  size  or  other  adhesive  materials. 

Paper  is  produced  from  various  materials,  but 
whatever  material  employed,  the  process  is  similar. 
The  rags,  bark,  fiber,  or  other  substances  are  reduced 
to  the  consistency  of  pulp  by  means  of  water.  This 
in  the  early  stage  of  the  manufacture  was  accom- 
plished by  macerating  and  boiling  of  the  material, 
until,  in  case  of  bark,  fibers,  or  other  raw  material, 
the  fibers  could  be  drawn  out  of  the  cellulose  matter, 
after  which  it  was  beaten  with  mallets,  or  with 
pestles  in  mortars  or  stampers  moved  by  some 
power.  The  beating  is  continued  until  the  material 
is  reduced  to  a  smooth  pulp.  The  pulping  in  our 
machine-paper  mills  is  more  rapidly  accomplished  by 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  143 

boiling  the  linen  or  cotton  rags  or  other  material  in 
a  strong  lye  or  caustic  alkali.  This  effectually  cleans 
the  rags,  and  other  vegetable  fibers  are  softened  and 
separated  in  a  remarkable  manner  by  it.  They  are 
then  put  into  a  machine,  called  the  washing-machine, 
which  washes  out  the  dirt  and  everything  but  the 
pure  vegetable  fiber.  This  machine  is  a  large  cast- 
iron  vessel,  in  \vhich  the  material  is  violently  ground 
and  drawn  through  a  stream  of  water,  until  it  is 
thoroughly  washed  and  partly  pulped,  or,  as  it  is 
technically  termed,  "broken  in." 

The  \vashing  machine  is  supplied  with  a  continued 
flow  of  clean  water,  and  the  soiled  water  regularly 
escapes  through  a  fine  gauze  screen,  in  the  ends  of 
the  cylinders  in  which  there  is  an  ingenious  arrange- 
ment for  carrying  it  off  through  its  hollow  axis.  The 
contents  are  emptied  into  the  draining  chest  through 
a  large  valve.  Here  the  water  is  drained  off,  and  the 
substance  is  placed  into  the  bleaching  vats,  which 
are  made  of  stone,  and  submitted  to  the  action  of  a 
strong  solution  of  chloride  of  lime  for  twenty-four 
hours  and  frequently  agitated,  after  which  it  is 
transferred  to  a  hydraulic  press  and  relieved  of  a 
portion  of  the  liquid  and  chloride  of  lime.  It  is  then 
placed  in  another  washing  engine,  and  for  an  hour  it 
is  submitted  to  the  same  process  as  in  the  first,  by 
•which  all  vestige  of  bleaching  material  is  removed, 
and  the  stuff  is  so  much  crushed  as  to  be  called  half- 
stuff.  From  this  engine  it  is  let  out  by  a  valve,  and 
finds  its  way  into  the  heating  engine,  which  is  placed 
at  a  lower  level  so  as  to  receive  it.  Here  the  arrange- 
ment is  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  washing  and  inter- 
mediate engines ;  but  the  ridges  on  the  bars  below 
the  cylinder,  and  on  the  cylinder  itself,  are  much 
sharper  and  the  disintegration  of  the  fibers  is  car- 
ried on  with  great  rapidity  until  they  are  separated ; 


144  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OP   WARES. 

and  the  flow  of  the  water  in  a  rapid  current,  as  it 
passes  the  cylinder,  draws  them  out  and  arranges 
them  in  the  water  in  much  the  same  way  as  wool  or 
cotton  is  laid  on  the  carding  cylinders  of  a  carding 
machine.  This  operation  takes  about  five  hours,  at 
the  end  of  which  time  the  materials  have  been 
worked  up  with  water  into  an  almost  impalpable 
pulp.  This  is  then  let  out  into  the  pulp  vat,  where 
it  is  kept  continually  agitated  by  a  wooden  wheel 
revolving  in  it,  called  a  hog,  and  from  this  the  hand- 
workmen  or  machine  is  supplied. 

The  pulp  being  ready  for  use  in  the  vat,  two  pro- 
cesses are  employed  in  paper-making, — hand  and 
machine-making.  The  latter  method  has  replaced 
the  former  almost  entirely. 

The  principle  of  the  machine  for  producing  paper 
is  very  simple ;  it  contains  a  pulp  vat  with  a  wheel 
inside  to  agitate  the  pulp,  and  an  arrangement  for 
pouring  the  pulp  over  the  wire  gauze  mould  which 
is  an  endless  sheet  moving  around  two  rollers,  which 
keeps  it  stretched  out  and  revolving  when  in  opera- 
tion. When  it  reaches  the  couching  roll,  most  of  the 
remaining  moisture  is  pressed  out,  and  it  iscarriedto 
the  first  press  rolls  by  means  of  an  endless  web  of  felt ; 
the  speed  of  the  felt  and  the  traveling  rollers  is  nicely 
calculated  so  as  to  prevent  a  strain  upon  the  still 
tender  web  of  paper.  Sometimes  the  upper  of  these 
two  series  is  filled  with  steam  to  commence  drying 
the  web.  The  paper  is  now  trusted  to  itself  and 
passes  on  from  the  press  rolls  to  the  drying-cylinders, 
where  it  again  meets  with  a  felt  sheet  which  keeps  it 
close  to  the  steam-filled  drying  cylinder.  After  hav- 
ing passed  around  these,  it  is  received  by  the  damp 
calenders  which  press  both  surfaces,  and  remove  the 
marks  of  the  wire  and  felt  which  are  visible.  This 
is  necessary  before  the  drying  is  quite  complete,  and 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OP  WARES.  145 

it  then  passes  the  second  series  of  drying  cylinders, 
where  the  drying  is  finished  and  thence  to  the  calen- 
ders, which  are  polished  cast  iron  rollers,  so  adjusted 
as  to  give  considerable  pressure  to  the  paper,  and  at 
the  same  time  glossiness  of  surface.  For  writing 
papers,  the  paper  passes  through  a  shallow  trough 
of  size  after  leaving  the  drying  cylinders,  and  then 
passes  over  another  series  of  skeleton  cylinders,  with 
fans  moving  on  the  inside,  by  which  it  is  again 
dried  without  heat;  then  it  passes  through  the 
calenders. 

Printing  and  other  papers  are  usually  sized  by 
mixing  the  size  in  the  pulp,  in  which  stage  the  color- 
ing materials,  such  as  ultramarine  for  the  blue  tint 
of  foolscap,  are  also  introduced.  The  paper  is  then 
cut  into  widths  upon  a  separate  machine,  which  again 
crosscuts  it  into  any  desired  size.  The  water  mark 
is  impressed  upon  the  paper  by  fine,  light  wire-gauze 
with  a  woven  pattern,  and  the  impression  is  received 
when  the  paper  is  still  pulp. 

The  following  are  the  principal  varieties  of  ordi- 
nary paper ;  the  sizes  are  given  in  inches : 

Writing  and  Printing  Papers. — Pat,  12M?  by  15 ; 
double  pat,  15  by  25;  foolscap,  16%  by  13%;  sheet 
and  third  do.,  22V2  by  13%;  demy,  20  by  15 ;  super- 
royal,  27  by  19 ;  imperial,  30  by  22 ;  atlas,  34  by 
26 ;  elephant,  28  by  23 ;  antiquarian,  53  by  31. 

These  sizes  are  somewhat  lessened  by  ploughing 
and  finishing  off  the  edges  previous  to  sale. 

Coarse  paper  for  wrapping  and  other  purposes, — 
kent-cap,  21  by  18;  bay-cap,  19%  by  24;  imperial- 
cap,  22%  by  29 ;  cartridge,  casing  and  middle  hand, 
21  by  16. 

Purple  papers  of  a  soft  texture,  unsized,  are  used 
in  very  large  quantities  by  sugar  refiners,  and  are  of 


various  sizes. 
10 


146  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Blotting  and  Filtering  Paper. — This  is  uncalen- 
dered,  made  of  good  quality,  and  usually  colored. 
It  is  of  the  same  size  as  demy. 

•Rice  paper  is  a  beautiful  material  imported  from 
China.  It  is  manufactured  from  pith,  and  resembles 
the  ancient  papyrus,  though  it  is  more  beautiful 
than  the  latter,  its  color  being  purely  white. 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  the  most  skillful 
paper-makers  in  the  world. 

The  manufacture  of  paper  has  become  so  varied 
as  to  its  products  and  materials  employed,  that  even 
to  mention  the  names  of  all  the  grades  of  paper 
would  occupy  a  volume  for  itself. 

The  industry  of  paper  manufacturing  is  experien- 
cing wonderful  development  in  the  United  States, 
especially  that  of  producing  paper  from  wood-pulp 
(poplar,  spruce,  and  other  soft  "woods ),  which  is  car- 
ried on  extensively  in  Michigan,  New  York,  Maine, 
New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Pennsylvania,  and  Wis- 
consin. Coarser  papers  are  made  from  jute,  hemp, 
and  straw. 

About  $5,000,000  worth  of  paper  was  imported 
into  the  United  States  during  1890,  and  nearly 
$1,000,000  worth  was  exported.  Much  of  the  fine 
paper  manufactured  in  this  country  is  produced  in 
Western  Massachusetts. 

PULP  AND  PAPER  PRODUCTS. 

Cardboard  is  produced  by  a  similar  process  as  that 
employed  in  the  production  of  ordinary  paper,  and  ! 
the  raw  material  employed  is  as  varied  as  with  the 
latter.  The  pulp  is  spread  out  in  thicker  layers  and 
is  pressed  just  as  in  making  common  paper.  Com- 
monly cardboards  have  an  additional  ingredient  con- 
sisting of  clay  or  crayon.  Pasteboards  consist  of 
several  sheets  pasted  or  pressed  together.  Many  of 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  147 

the  varieties  of  pasteboard  have  a  well  calendered 
surface ;  the  sizing  or  finish  of  this  board  is  various, 
and  is  so  developed  as  to  resemble  the  finish  of  gran- 
ite and  the  softness  of  velvet.  These  boards  are  of 
a  number  of  thicknesses  known  as  one,  two,  three, 
four,  and  five  ply,  and  a  very  heavy  board  known  as 
railroad  card  or  bristol  board.  Cardboards  are  of 
very  numerous  sizes  and  qualities. 

Paper-hangings,  or  wall  paper,  is  the  name  applied 
to  the  webs  of  paper,  usually  decorated,  with  which 
the  interior  walls  of  buildings  are  often  covered.  The 
designs  are  first  traced  out  and  then  engraved  upon 
wood  and  printed,  similarly  to  printing  calicoes,  in 
various  shades  and  colors.  Wall  paper  comes  into 
trade  in  rolls. 

Lithographic  paper  is  prepared  from  good  printing 
paper  by  laying  on  one  side  of  the  sheets  a  prepara- 
tion consisting  of  six  parts  of  starch,  one  of  alum, 
and  two  of  gum  arabic,  dissolved  in  warm  water 
and  applied  with  a  brush.  Generally  a  little  gam- 
boge is  added,  to  give  it  a  slight  yellow  color. 

Copying  paper,  for  manifolding,  is  made  by  apply- 
ing a  composition  of  lard  and  black-lead  to  one  or 
both  sides  of  sheets  of  writing  paper;  and  after  leav- 
ing it  on  for  a  day  or  so  it  is  carefully  and  smoothly 
scraped  off"  and  wiped  with  a  soft  cloth. 

Tracing  paper  is  good  printing  paper  rendered 
transparent  by  brushing  it  over  with  a  mixture  of 
Canada  balsam  and  oil  of  turpentine  or  nut  oil  and 
turpentine.  In  either  case  it  must  be  carefully  dried 
"before  using. 

Building  and  roofing  paper  is  a  heavy,  coarse 
paper  which  comes  into  trade  in  rolls.  The  outer 
surface  of  this  material  is  sometimes  coated  with  a 
solution  of  tar  and  asphalt,  \vhich  adds  to  its  dura- 
bility and  enables  it  to  \vithstand  the  action  of  water 


148  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

for  some  time ;  in  this  form  it  is  often  termed  tarred 
felt. 

Papier-mache. — The  term  papier-mache  is,  in  trade, 
held  to  apply  rather  to  the  articles  made  of  pulp 
than  to  the  pulp  itself;  a  vast  manufacture  has 
sprung  up  during  the  present  century  particularly  in 
Birmingham,  England,  in  which  a  great  variety  of 
ornamental  articles  and  useful  \vares  are  produced 
from  this  material.  They  are  coated  with  successive 
layers  cf  asphalt  varnish,  which  is  acted  upon  by  the 
heat  in  ovens  until  the  volatile  parts  have  dissipated, 
and  it  becomes  hard,  and  capable  of  receiving  a  high 
polish.  Mother  of  pearl  is  much  used  for  its  decoration, 
and,  when  ground  down  smooth  and  polished,  has 
the  appearance  of  being  inlaid,  though  it  is  usually 
put  on  in  small  flakes  only. 

Besides  being  manufactured  into  trays,  boxes, 
statuary,  etc.,  papier-mache  is  also  used  for  stereo- 
typing, to  replace  lead. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 
Trees  and  Their  Products. 

Under  this  head  we  understand  the  different  kinds 
of  trees  which  come  on  the  market,  and  also  all  their 
products.  They  are  divided  into  foreign  and  domes- 
tic trees. 

a.— DOMESTIC   TREES. 

OAK. 

Eiche,  Chene,  Bk. 

Oak  is  a  tree  of  the  genus  Querrus.  The  oaks  have 
alternate  leaves,  often  variously  lobed,  and  a  smooth 
nut  called  acorn.  The  species  are  very  numerous, 
form  forest  trees  of  grand  proportions,  and  live  many 
centuries.  The  wood  is  usually  hard  and  tough,  but 
can  be  of  different  qualities,  depending  upon  the  age 
and  soil  in  which  it  grows;  it  is  provided  with  con- 
spicuous medullary  rays,  forming  the  silvery  grain. 
The  timber  is  used  for  ship-building,  in  carpentry, 
mill-work,  etc.  The  bark  is  used  for  tanning. 

BEECH. 

Bucbe,   Hetre,   Bok. 

Beech  is  a  tree  of  genus  Fagus.  It  attains  a  height 
of  100  to  120  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  four  feet,  hav- 


150  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

ing  smooth  bark  and  thick  foliage.  The  wood  is 
more  or  less  reddish-brown  in  color,  according  as  the 
tree  has  grown  in  a  dense  forest,  or  has  been  freely 
exposed  to  the  sun  and  air.  It  is  very  hard  and  solid, 
but  brittle,  and  when  exposed  to  the  open  air  very 
liable  to  rot  and  tp  be  eaten  by  worms.  It  is  not 
therefore  adapted  to  the  purposes  of  the  house-car- 
penter; but  when  kept  under  water  it  is  very  dura- 
ble, and  is  accordingly  employed  in  the  erection  of 
mills,  and  for  dams,  sluices,  etc.  It  is  also  employed 
for  many  purposes  by  cabinet-makers,  turners,  etc. 
The  wood  of  the  red  beech  is  more  valuable  than  that 
of  the  white  beech. 

ALDER. 

Erie,  Anne,  Al. 

Alder  belongs  to  the  genus  Alnus.  The  common  or 
black  alder  is  a  native  of  Britain  and  the  northern 
parts  of  America.  The  wood  is  of  an  orange  color, 
not  very  good  for  fuel,  but  affords  one  of  the  best 
kinds  of  charcoal  for  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder, 
on  which  account  it  is  often  grown  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  wood  is  also  employed  by  turners  and 
joiners;  but  it  is  particularly  valuable  on  account  of 
its  propert}r  to  resist  the  action  of  water  for  a  long 
time,  and  is  therefore  used  as  piles  for  bridges,  for 
pumps,  pipes,  etc. 

The  gray  or  white  alder  is  also  a  native  of  North 
America.  The  wood  is  white,  fine  grained,  and  com- 
pact, but  readily  rots  under  water.  Its  bark  is 
used  for  tanning  and  dyeing. 

BIRCH. 

Birke,  BouJeau,  Bjork. 

Birch,  of  the  genus  Betulus,  is  a  beautiful  forest 
tree  with  smooth  and  silvery  white  bark.  The  wood 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  151 

is  white,  firm,  and  tough,  but  can  be  of  different 
qualities,  depending  upon  the  soil  in  which  it  grows. 
It  is  employed  by  wheelwrights,  coopers,  turners,  etc. 
The  sap  is  not  only  used  as  a  beverage  in  a  fresh 
state,  but  is  converted  by  fermentation  into  a  kind 
of  wine. 

The  bark  and  leaves  are  used  in  dyeing  yellow. 
The  outer  or  white  layers  being  subjected  to  distil- 
lation there  is  obtained  a  peculiar  reddish  oil  called 
oil  of  birch,  which  is  employed  in  the  preparation 
of  Russian  leather. 

It  has  many  species,  as  the  white  or  common 
birch,  the  dwarf  birch,  the  yellow  birch,  and  the 
black  or  cherry  birch,  etc. 

LINDEN. 
Linde,    Tilleut.    Lind. 

Linden  is  a  handsome  tree  of  the  genus  Tilia,  has 
clusters  of  light  yellow  flowers,  and  large  cordate 
leaves.  The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  but  tough, 
durable,  and  particularly  suitable  for  carved  \vork. 
It  is  much  used  by  turners  and  for  making  pill-boxes. 
The  fiberous  inner  bark  is  used  for  making  ropes, 
mats,  and  other  plaited  work. 

ELM. 

Ulme,  Orme,  Aim. 

Elm,  a  tree  of  genus  Ulmus,  of  several  species,  is 
much  used  as  a  shade  tree.  The  wood  is  compact 
and  very  durable  in  water;  it  is  used  for  a  great 
variety  of  purposes  by  wheelwrights,  machine 
makers,  ship  builders,  etc.;  it  is  also  prized  by  joiners 
for  its  fine  grain  and  the  mahogany  color  which  it 


152  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OP   WARES. 

readily  assumes  on  the  application  of  an  acid.    The 
bark  is  used  in  dyeing  and  in  sugar  refining. 

ASH. 

Esche,  Frene,  Ask. 

Ash  is  a  beautiful  shade  tree  of  the  genus  Fraxi- 
nus,  and  is  highly  ornamental  in  parks.  The  wood 
is  white,  tough  and  hard,  is  much  valued  by  wheel- 
wrights, cartwrights,  and  coach  makers,  joiners, 
and  turners.  It  is  also  excellent  for  fuel.  Some- 
times it  becomes  irregular  in  the  disposition  of  its 
fibers  and  finely  veined,  and  is  then  prized  by  cabi- 
netmakers. Cultivation  has  produced  and  perpetu- 
ated a  number  of  varieties. 

MAPLE. 

Ahorn,  Erable,  Loan. 

Maple,  of  the  genus  Acer,  is  a  highly  esteemed  tree. 
The  wood  is  white,  compact  and  firm,  hard  and 
capable  of  receiving  a  fine  polish,  and  is  used  by 
wheelwrights,  turners,  etc.  Sugar  is  sometimes 
made  from  the  sap  of  this  tree,  but  the  specie  which 
3rields  it  most  abundantly  is  the  maple  or  sugar  tree 
of  North  America. 

LILAC. 

Lilak,   Syringe,  Syren. 

Lilac,  of  the  genus  Syringa,  is  one  of  the  most 
common  ornamental  shrubs.  There  are  many 
varieties.  The  flowers  grow  in  large  conical  pani- 
cles, are  of  a  bluish  purple  or  white  color,  and  have 
a  very  delicious  odor.  The  wood  is  fine  grained,  and 
is  used  for  inlaying,  turning,  and  the  making  of 
small  articles.  A  fragrant  oil  can  be  obtained  from 
it  by  distillation. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OP  WARES,  153 

PINE. 

Fichte,  Fokre,  Pin,  Furu,  Tall. 

Pine,  of  the  genus  Pinus,  includes  a  number  of 
varieties  of  beautiful  and  valuable  trees.  The  timber 
is  highly  valuable,  being  very  resinous  and  durable, 
although  there  is  a  great  difference  in  timber  grow- 
ing in  different  soils  and  situations,  rich  soil  and 
sheltered  situations  being  unfavorable  to  the  quality 
of  timber,  which  becomes  white,  soft,  and  compara- 
tively worthless.  Common  turpentine,  much  tar, 
pitch,  resin,  and  lamp-black  are  products  of  the 
pine. 

FIR  TREE. 

Weistanne,  Sapin,  Gran. 

Fir  tree  is  also  a  highly  esteemed  tree.  The  wood 
is  much  used  for  musical  instruments;  it  is  also 
valued  as  fuel. 

WALNUT. 

Nassbaum,  Nayer,    Valnot. 

Walnut  is  a  specie  of  the  beautiful  trees  of  the 
genus  Juglans.  The  species,  of  which  nearly  thirty 
are  known,  are  mostly  natives  of  North  America; 
a  lew  are  found  in  Asia.  The  common  walnut  is  a 
lofty  tree  of  sixty  to  ninety  feet.  The  wood  of 
young  trees  is  white,  and  but  little  esteemed ;  that  of 
old  trees  is  brown,  veined,  and  shaded  with  darker 
brown  or  black.  The  wood  of  the  roots  is  beauti- 
fully grained.  The  sap  is  limpid  like  water,  but 
contains  much  sugar,  and  the  tree  is  sometimes 
tapped  for  it.  An  excellent  pickle  and  a  kind  of 
ketchup  are  made  of  the  unripe  fruit.  The  ripe 
fruit  is  one  of  the  best  of  nuts. 

Very  similar  to  the  common  walnut  is  the  black 
walnut  of  North  America.  The  timber  is  even  more 


154  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

valuable  than  that  of  the  common,  but  the  nuts  are 
inferior.  The  butter  nut  is  abundant  in  the  northern 
parts  of  North  America.  The  wood  is  not  apt  to 
split  or  warp,  and  is  useful  for  many  purposes. 


ft.— FOREIGN  TREES. 

MAHOGANY. 

Mahogoniholz,  Bois  d'  Acajou,  Mahogany. 

Mahogany,  the  wood  of  the  trunk  of  the  mahog- 
any tree,  Swietenia  mahogoni,  a  tree  80  to  100  high, 
is  a  native  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
It  attains  an  immense  size,  and  its  timber  is  generally 
sound  throughout,  in  the  largest  trees.  The  slow 
progress  which  it  is  observed  to  make,  clearly  indi- 
cates that  the  trees  -which  are  cut  for  use  must  have 
attained  a  great  age;  200  years  has  been  assumed 
as  an  approximation.  It  is  most  abundant  on  the 
coast  of  Honduras  and  around  Campeachy  bay. 
St.  Domingo  and  Cuba  also  yield  a  considerable 
quantity,  which  is  of  a  finer  quality  than  that 
obtained  from  the  main  land,  which  is  frequently 
called  bay  wood  to  distinguish  it  from  the  Cuba 
mahogany,  usually  called  Spanish.  The  wood 
varies  much  in  value  according  to  the  color  and 
beauty  of  its  grain. 

EBONY. 

Ebenholz,  Bois  d'ebene,  Ebenholz. 

Ebony,  a  wood  remarkable  for  its  hardness, 
heaviness,  and  deep  black  color,  is  the  heart- 
wood  of  different  species  of  Diospyros.  The  best 
ebony  excelling  in  uniformity  and  intensity  of  color, 
is  that  from  Ceylon,  Mauritius,  and  Madagascar. 
The  Mexican  ebony  is  also  much  esteemed. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  155 

Besides  the  genuine  ebony  several  other  kinds  come 
into  market.  American  ebony,  the  wood  of  which 
is  a  greenish-brown  rather  than  a  black  color.  It 
receives  a  good  polish,  is  very  hard  and  durable,  and 
much  sought  alter  by  musical  instrument  makers. 
Imitated  ebony  is  obtained  from  the  pear  tree,  plum 
tree,  etc.,  by  dyeing  the  wood  black.  The  genuine 
ebony  can  easily  be  distinguished  by  its  peculiar  odor 
when  heated,  firmness,  and  unchangeable  color. 

ROSEWOOD. 

Kosenholz,   Bois  de  rose,  Ro?entra. 

Rosewood,  a  valuable  cabinet  wood  of  a  dark 
red  color,  streaked  and  variegated  with  black,  is 
obtained  from  several  tropical  leguminous  trees. 
The  finest  kind  comes  from  Brazil.  We  receive  it  chiefly 
from  Para  and  Maranham ;  it  conies  in  lengths  of 
.  about  ten  feet.  It  is  much  used  for  veneering,  in 
making  furniture  and  musical  instruments. 

CEDARWOOD. 

Cedernholz,  Bois  de  cedre,  Cedertra. 

Cedar  is  the  name  of  several  evergreen  trees  grow- 
ing in  Asia  and  America.  The  cedar  of  Lebanon, 
growing  in  Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  has  body  wood 
of  a  reddish  color,  full  of  fragrant  resin.  Besides 
these,  several  kinds  of  so  called  cedar  wood  come 
from  the  West  Indies.  The  wood,  being  soft,  light, 
and  of  an  agreeable  fragrance,  is  used  for  canoes  and 
shingles.  Havana  cigar  boxes  are  made  from  it. 
The  Deodar,  or  Himalayan  cedar  wood,  is  a  resinous, 
fragrant,  compact  and  very  durable  wood.  Owing 
to  the  abundance  of  resin,  laths  made  of  it  burn  like 
candles. 


156  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

POCKWOOD. 

PockenhoJz,  Hois   de  gaiac,  Pockenholz. 

Pockwood  from  West  India  comes  on  the  market 
in  big  blocks  which,  on  the  outside,  are  of  a  pale  yel- 
low color,  and  the  inside  is  resinous  brown  or,  by 
the  influence  of  the  air,  greenish.  The  wood  is  very 
hard  and  heavy,  and  is  used  for  various  mechanical 
purposes,  as  for  the  wheels  of  ships,  blocks,  cogs  and 
the  like.  The  best  wood  comes  from  Jamaica;  less 
valued  is  that  of  Porto  Rico  and  Domingo. 

TEAK. 

Thekholz,  Tectone,  Tetra. 

Teak  is  the  name  of  two  kinds  of  timber,  valuable 
for  shipbuilding  and  other  purposes;  one  of  them  is 
known  as  Indian  teak  and  the  other  as  African  teak. 
The  most  valuable  timber  of  this  variety  is  produced 
in  the  East  Indies,  it  is  light  and  easily  worked,  strong, 
durable,  and  not  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects. 

BOXWOOD. 

Buchsbaum,  Buis,  Buthom. 

Boxwood  is  the  wood  of  the  box.  It  is  of  a  beauti- 
ful pale  yellow  color,  remarkably  hard  and  strong, 
of  a  fine,  regular,  and  compact  texture,  and  capable 
of  a  beautiful  polish.  The  wood  is  much  valued  for 
the  purposes  of  the  turner  and  the  wood  carver,  and  is 
preferred  to  every  other  kind  of  wood  for  the  manu- 
facture of  flutes,  of  mathematical  instruments,  etc. 

The  following  kinds  of  wood  also  come  on  the 
market,  although  less  extensively : 

Olive  wood,  of  the  olive  tree,  is  yellowish-brown 
and  beautifully  variegated,  durable,  and  of  an  aro- 
matic odor. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  157 

Acacia  wood,  in  old  trunks,  is  strong  and  durable, 
and  admits  of  a  fine  polish  and  is  much  esteemed  lor 
many  purposes. 

Cashew  wood,  from  tropical  America,  is  much 
esteemed  for  fine  cabinet  work. 

Satin  wood  is  the  hard,  lemon-colored,  fragrant 
wood  of  an  East  Indian  tree.  It  takes  a  lustrous 
finish  and  is  used  in  cabinet  work.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  the  wood  of  a  species  of  prickly  ash  grow- 
ing in  Florida  and  the  West  Indies. 

Ironwood  is  a  name  applied,  in  different  countries, 
to  the  timber  of  various  trees,  on  account  of  its 
great  hardness  and  heaviness.  It  is  chiefly  used  for 
axles,  ploughs  and  other  agricultural  implements. 

WOOD   PRODUCTS. 

Veneer  is  a  layer  of  wood,  cut  very  thin,  for  the 
purpose  of  being  glued  to  the  surface  of  commoner 
kinds.  Only  choice  kinds  of  hard  woods  are  sawed 
into  veneer,  and  they  are  usually  attached  to  deal 
or  pine,  so  as  to  give  both  the  appearance  of  being 
one  piece.  In  this  way,  the  more  costly  kinds  of  fur- 
niture \voods  are  economically  used  by  the  cabinet 
makers. 

By  wooden  ware  we  generally  understand  all 
articles  made  of  wood.  They  may  be  more  or  less 
subjected  to  labor.  We  mean  especially  such  wares 
as  the  cabinetmaker,  turner,  carver,  etc.,  must  first 
improve  before  sending  on  the  market.  All  kinds  of 
furniture,  musical  instruments,  playthings  of  good 
or  poor  quality,  partly  plain,  partly  painted  or 
gilded,  partly  made  of  a  mixture  of  sawdust  and 
other  articles,  belong  among  wooden  wares.  Most 
of  these  playthings  are  manufactured  exclusively  in 
Germany,  and  are  exported  from  there  all  over  the 
world. 


158  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OP   WARES, 

Besides  those  articles  directly  made  of  wood,  there 
are  several  other  products  yielded  from  charred 
wood.  The  most  important  of  these  are  as  follows: 

Wood  charcoal  is  coal  made  by  charring  wood  in 
a  kiln  or  retort,  from  which  air  has  been  excluded, 
and  by  this  process  the  more  volatile  matters  burn 
away,  and  most  of  the  carbon  remains.  Charcoal 
can  IDC  made  from  any  kind  of  wood,  but  young  and 
firm  trees  yield  the  best  *coal.  The  uses  of  wood 
charcoal  are  numerous.  It  is  largely  employed  as  a 
fuel  and  as  a  valuable  material  in  the  construction 
of  niters,  not  only  for  decolorizing  purposes,  but  for 
assisting  in  purifying  water  for  domestic  use;  itisalso 
valuable  in  the  preparation  of  gunpowder  and  color- 
ing matters. 

Wood  tar  is  a  thin,  black,  viscous  liquid  obtained 
by  the  distillation  of  the  wood  of  pine,  spruce,  or 
fir.  It  is  used  in  varnishes,  cements,  and  to  render 
ropes,  oakum,  etc.,  impervious  to  water. 

Pitch  is  the  black  residue  which  remains  after  dis- 
tilling wood  tar.  Pitch  is  solid  at  the  ordinary  tem- 
perature of  our  climate,  but  softens  and  melts  with 
a  small  accession  of  heat.  It  is  much  used  in  mak- 
ing artificial  asphalt  for  building  and  paving  pur- 
poses, and  in  the  black  varnish  used  for  coating  iron 
work  to  keep  it  from  rusting. 

Lampblack  is  the  soot  produced  by  burning  resin, 
turpentine,  pitch,  oil,  and  other  matters,  in  such 
a  manner  that  large  volumes  of  smoke  are  formed 
and  collected  in  properly  arranged  receptacles.  It 
consists  of  finely  divided  carbon,  sometimes  with  a 
very  small  proportion  of  various  impurities.  It  is 
used  as  an  ingredient  in  printers'  ink,  and  various 
black  pigments  and  cements. 

India  Ink. — The  cakes  of  this  substance,  which  is  a 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  159 

mechanical  mixture,  and  not,  like  the  true  inks,  a 
chemical  compound,  are  composed  of  lampblack  and 
size,  or  animal  glue,  with  a  little  perfume.  It  is 
extensively  employed  for  designs  in  black  and  white 
and  all  intermediate  shades  of  color. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 
Lichens  and  Fungus. 

Among  these  cryptogamous  plants  there  are  very 
few  that  come  into  market,  at  least  in  their  natural 
state,  although  several  are  much  esteemed  in  the 
preparation  of  important  articles;  e.  g.,  soda,  bro- 
min,  iodine;  many  are  valuable  as  food. 

ICELAND  MOSS. 

Islaadisbes  Moos,  Lichen  d'  Islands,  Islandslaf. 

Iceland  moss  is  a  lichen,  found  in  all  the  northern 
parts  of  the  world,  and  is  collected  as  an  article  of 
commerce  in  Norway  and  Iceland.  In  many  places 
this  lichen  covers  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground, 
growing  to  about  one  and  one-half  to  four  inches 
high.  It  is  of  a  leathery  and  somewhat  cartilagin- 
ous substance.  Iceland  moss  is  an  agreeable  article 
of  food.  It  contains  80  per  cent  of  a  kind  of  starch 
called  lichen  starch,  or  lichenin,  and  owes  its  bitter- 
ness to  an  acid  principle,  cetracic  acid. 

CARRAGHEEN,   OR  IRISH  MOSS. 
Islandishes  Perlmoos,  Mousse perlee,  Perlmossa. 

Carragreen  is  a  seaweed  now  used  to  a  considerable 
extent  both  medicinally  and  as  an  article  of  food. 
It  is  found  on  the  rocky  seashores  of  most  parts 

160 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  161 

of  Europe  and  on  the  eastern  coast  of  North  America. 
The  species  which  principally  constitute  the  carra- 
green  are  remarkably  numerous.  It  is  from  two  to 
twelve  inches  long,  branches  by  repeated  fork- 
ing, cartilaginous,  flexible,  reddish  brown.  When 
bleached,  it  is  the  Irish  moss  of  commerce. 

FUNGUS. 

Mushroom  is  an  edible  fungus,  having  a  white 
stalk  which  bears  a  convex  or  evenflattish expanded 
portion  called  the  pileus.  This  is  whitish  and  silky, 
or  somewhat  scalv  above,  and  bears  on  the  under 

tf 

side  radiating  gills  which  are  at  first  flesh-colored, 
but  gradually  becomes  brown.  It  has  a  pleasant 
smell,  and  is  largely  used  as  food.  It  is  also  culti- 
vated from  spawn. 

Lactary  of  several  varieties  is  also  valuable  for 
food.  It  is  full  of  a  juice-like  milk.  It  is  brought  to 
market  either  preserved  in  butter  or  in  brine,  very 
rarely  dried. 

Morel  is  an  edible  fungus,  the  upper  part  of  which 
is  covered  with  a  reticulated  and  pitted  hymenium.  It 
is  nutritious  and  not  difficult  to  digest,  and  is  chiefly 
used  in  sauces  and  gravies,  on  account  of  its  pleasant 
flavor.  It  is  used  either  fresh  or  dried,  and  is  often 
brought  to  market  in  a  dried  state. 

Truffle  is  any  one  of  the  several  kinds  of  roundish, 
subterranean  fungi,  usually  of  a  blackish  color.  It 
varies  in  size;  on  account  of  its  agreeable  flavor  it  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  many  dishes.  It  is  brought 
to  market  either  in  slices  which  are  immersed  in  fat, 
or  dried  and  packed  in  waxed  paper. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 
Vegetable  Salts  and  Acids. 

SALT  OF  SORREL. 

SauerkleesaJz,  Sel  d'  oseille,  Syrsalt. 

Salt  of  sorrel  is  an  alkaline  substance,  which  is 
found  in  thejuice  of  several  plants  of  the  genus  Oxalis 
and  Rumex.  It  is  obtained  by  crystallizing  thejuice, 
expressed  from  the  leaves  of  these  plants.  The  brown 
salt  which  is  first  obtained  is  purified  by  dissolving 
it  in  boiling  water  and  then  subjected  to  recrystalli- 
zation ;  it  then  forms  clear,  colorless  prisms,  which 
are  not  altered  by  contact  with  the  air,  but  in  time 
become  opaque  and  white.  The  taste  of  the  salt  is 
harsh  and  sour. 

Good  pure  salt  of  sorrel  is  partially  consumed  in  a 
coal  fire,  giving  rise  to  a  bluish  smoke  and  leaving  a 
residue  possessed  of  a  strong  alkaline  taste  (potash). 

Salt  of  sorrel  is  used  for  extracting  spots,  and  par- 
ticularly iron  marks  from  linen;  it  is  also  used  in 
dyeing. 

Oxalic  acid  is  a  dibasic  acid,  existing  combined  in 
oxalis  as  an  acid  potassium  oxalate  and  in  many 
plant  tissues  as  the  calcium  oxalate.  It  is  prepared 
on  a  large  scale,  by  the  action  of  fused  catistic  soda 
or  potash  on  sawdust,  as  a  white  crystalline  sub- 
stance, which  has  a  strong  acid  taste  and  is  poison- 
ous in  large  doses.  It  is  used  in  dyeing,  calico  print- 

162 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  163 

ing,  bleaching  flax  and  straw,  the  preparation  of 
formic  acid,  and  in  salts  of  lemon  for  removing  ink 
stains,  mold,  etc. 

TARTAR.    (WINESTONE.) 

Tartar  is  the  reddish  crust  or  sediment  formed  in 
the  interior  of  wine  vats  and  wine  bottles.  Origin- 
ally, it  exists  in  the  juice  of  the  grape,  and  is  soluble 
therein ;  but  during  the  fermentation  of  thejuice,  and 
as  it  passes  into  wine,  much  alcohol  is  developed, 
which  remaining  in  the  fermenting  liquor,  causes  the 
precipitation  of  the  tartar.  Some  wines,  when  bot- 
tled, are  not  fully  ripe,  and  more  alcohol  being  there- 
after developed,  a  further  precipitation  of  tartar  takes 
place  and  forms  a  crust  in  the  bottles.  Tartar  comes 
on  the  market  under  the  name  of  crude  tartar,  or 
argol  and  cream  of  tartar. 

ARGOL.    (CRUDE  TARTAR.) 

Roher  Weinstcin,  Tartre,  Raa  Vinstein. 

The  constituents  of  argol  are  bitartrate  of  potash, 
tartrate  of  lime,  with  coloring  and  extracting  mat- 
ters. It  is  generally  of  a  reddish  tinge,  obtained 
from  the  color  of  the  grapes,  but  sometimes  of  a 
grayish-white  color,  when  it  has  been  deposited  dur- 
ing the  fermentation  of  the  juice  of  colorless  grapes. 
The  red  or  white  argol  is  denominated  in  commerce 
crude  tartar,  and  its  principal  uses  are  in  the  prep- 
aration of  cream  of  tartar  and  tartaric  acid.  It  is 
also  frequently  used  in  dyeing,  calico  printing,  and  in 
many  chemical  preparations. 

CREAM  OF  TARTAR. 

Gereinigtcr  Weiastein,  Tartre  purife,   Renad  Vinstein. 

Cream  of  tartar  is  purified  tartar  or  argol ;  so 
called  because  of  the  crust  of  crystals  which  forms  on 


164  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

the  surface  of  the  liquor  in  the  process  of  purification 
by  recrystallization.  It  is  a  white  crystalline  sub- 
stance, \vith  a  gritty,  acid  taste.  It  is  largely  used 
as  an  ingredient  in  baking  powders,  and  in  dyeing, 
etc. 

TARTARIC  ACID. 

Weiasaure,  Acide  tartarique,  Viasyra. 

Tartaric  acid  is  usually  seen  in  the  form  of  color- 
less, transparent,  oblique  prisms  which  are  not 
affected  by  the  action  of  the  air,  have  an  agreeable 
acid  taste,  and  are  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 
This  acid  occurs  abundantly  in  the  vegetable  king- 
dom both  in  the  free  and  combined  state.  It  is  found 
as  a  free  acid  in  tamarinds,  grapes,  the  pineapple, 
etc.,  and  in  combination  with  potash  and  lime  in 
tamarinds,  grapes,  mulberries,  and  in  small  quantities 
in  the  j  uice  of  many  other  vegetables.  It  is,  however, 
from  argol,  a  product  of  the  fermentation  of  grape 
juice,  that  the  tartaric  acid  of  commerce  is  obtained. 

Tartaric  acid  is  used  in  large  quantity  by  calico- 
printers  and  dyers  for  the  removal  of  certain  mor- 
dants and  is  much  employed  in  medicine,  in  the  prep- 
aration of  effervescent  draughts,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

Some  other  kinds  of  salts  as  soda,  potash,  verdigris, 
sugar  of  lead,  etc.,  which  are  partly  prepared  from 
vegetable  products,  are  mentioned  in  connection  with 
the  mineral  products. 


PART  SECOND. 

Animal  Products. 

'• 

The  animals  of  the  more  developed  as  well  as  those 
oi/the  lower  stages  of  animal  life  furnish  products 
which  have  an  important  bearing  upon  commercial 
and  industrial  enterprise.  The  following  divisions 
serve  to  distinguish  animals  belonging  to  the  vari- 
ous developments  of  animal  life : 

1.  Vertebrates. — This  division  includes  all  animals 
which  have  an  internal  skeleton  joined  to  backbone. 
It  comprises  four  classes:  1, mammalia  (animals  which 
produce  their  young  alive  and  for  a  time  suckle  them, 
as  the  dog,  cat,  lion,  etc.);  2,  birds;   3,  reptiles;  and 
4,  fishes. 

2.  Molluscs. — Animals  of  a  soft  texture,  and  having 
no  skeleton  ;  generally  furnished  with  a  stony  cover- 
ing or  shell;  as  the  oyster,  snail,  and  mussel. 

3.  Articulates. — Animals  consisting  of  a  number 
of  joints  or  rings,  soft  or  hard,  supplying  the  place 
of  a  skeleton ;   as  the  lobster,  worms,  spiders,   and 
insects. 

4.  Radiates. — So   called    because    in    many   cases 
their  organs  are  arranged  like  rays  proceeding  from 
a  center;    also  called  zoophytes,  or  plant  animals, 
from  the  resemblance  to  some  specie  of  plants.    The 
coral  zoophyte  and  microscopic  animals  belong  to 

this  division. 

165 


CHAPTER  I. 
Products  from  Vertebrates. 

a. — FURS   AND   HIDES. 

Most  of  the  mammalia  have  an  outer  garment 
consisting  of  a  haired  hide,  which  in  accordance  with 
the  skin  of  other  vertebrates  consists  of  two  layers : 
one  sensitive,  called  dermis,  and  one  non-sensitive, 
called  epidermis.  The  skin  of  many  animals  has  a 
wide  range  of  usefulness,  and  therefore  constitutes 
an  important  article  of  trade.  Hides  that  have 
thin,  short,  and  coarse  hair  are  especially  adapted  to 
the  preparation  of  leather ;  those  with  long,  dense, 
and  beautiful  hair  are  called  furs.  Hides  are  obtained 
mostly  from  horned  cattle,  while  furs  are  obtained 
from  wild  animals,  especially  from  beasts  of  prey 
and  rodentia. 

FURS. 

For  manufacturing  purposes,  furs  are  classified 
into  felted  and  dressed.  Felted  furs,  such  as  beaver, 
otter,  hare,  and  rabbit,  are  used  for  hats  and  other 
felted  fabric,  in  which  the  hairs  or  filaments  are 
made  so  as  to  interlace  or  entangle,  forming  a  very 
strong  and  close  plexus.  Dressed  furs  are  those  to 
which  furrier's  art  is  applied  in  making  muffs,  boas, 
and  the  fur  trimmings  of  garments.  The  fur  is  not 

166 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  167 

separated  from  the  pelt  for  these  purposes.  After 
the  pelts  have  been  cleaned  and  dried,  they  are  made 
up  into  garments  and  trimmings  by  sewing  through 
them.  The  pelts,  however,  are  very  irregular  in  shape, 
and  often  differ  in  the  color  of  their  parts;  theyneedbe 
cut  into  pieces,  matched  according  to  their  tint,  and 
sewed  together  edge  to  edge;  this  requires  much 
skill. 

The  following  kinds  are  obtained  from  carnivor- 
ous animals: 

Lion  fur  is  obtained  from  the  lion,  found  in  South- 
ern Asia  and  most  parts  of  Africa.  The  color  is 
ta\wiy  yellow  or  yellowish  brown. 

Tiger  fur,  of  royal  tiger,  from  Southern  Asia  and 
India,  is  tawny  or  rufous  yellow,  transversely  striped 
with  black. 

Jaguar  fur,  from  Texas  and  Mexico,  is  brownish 
yellow,  with  large,  dark,  somewhat  angular  rings, 
each  generally  enclosing  one  or  two  dark  spots. 

Leopard  fur,  from  Africa  and  Asia,  is  of  a  yellow 
or  fawn  color,  with  rings  or  rose-like  clusters  of 
black  spots. 

Serval  fur  is  tawny,  with  black  spots. 

Cat  fur  is  partly  from  the  domestic  cat,  partly 
from  the  wild  cat  of  Southern  Europe.  The  color  is 
gray-brown  or  tawny  transversely  striped.  Beauti- 
ful cat  furs  are  obtained  from  North  America  and 
Russia. 

Ermine  fur  is  of  a  pure  white  color  except  the  tip 
of  the  tail,  which  is  black.  The  spotted  appearance 
of  this  fur  is  not  natural ;  it  is  produced  by  sewing 
the  black  tail-tips  on  the  white  fur  on  certain  spots. 

Sable  fur,  obtained  chiefly  from  Northern  Russia 
and  Siberia,  is  brown,  grayish-yellow  on  the  throat, 
and  small  grayish-yellow  spots  are  scattered  on  the 


168  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

sides  of  the  neck.  The  whole  fur  is  extensively  lus- 
trous, and  hence  of  the  very  highest  value. 

Martin  fur  is  of  two  sorts ;  that  of  the  common 
martin  and  that  of  the  pine  martin.  Both  species 
are  of  a  dark  tawny  color,  the  common  martin  hav- 
ing a  white  throat,  and  the  pine  martin  a  yellow 
throat.  The  fur  of  the  martin  is  often  dyed  and  sold 
as  an  inferior  kind  of  sable. 

Otter  fur  has  been  known  in  Europe  about  a 
century  and  a  half,  being  obtained  from  the  otters 
which  frequent  the  seas  washing  the  Asiatic  shores 
of  the  Russian  dominions;  the  fur  varies  from  a 
beautiful  brown  to  jet-black,  and  is  very  fine,  soft, 
and  glossy. 

Glutton  fur  is  provided  with  long  nairs,  generally 
of  a  brown  color,  sometimes  approaching  black, 
lighter  bands  passing  from  the  neck  along  the  flanks, 
and  meeting  at  the  tail.  The  short  fur  is  chestnut 
brown ;  the  muzzle  is  black.  The  fur  of  glutton  is 
sometimes  of  a  considerable  value,  and  is  used  for 
muffs,  cloaks,  etc. 

Fox  fur,  partly  from  the  common  fox,  partly  from 
other  varieties,  is  obtained  in  many  different  quali- 
ties. The  most  important  varieties  are  from  the 
following:  Cross-gray  fox,  with  a  dark  brown  cross 
on  the  back ;  coal  fox,  which  on  the  back  is  black 
and  on  the  sides  gray ;  both  varieties  furnish  valu- 
able furs.  The  most  esteemed  of  all  furs  is  furnished 
by  the  black  fox  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is 
very  similar  to  the  common  fox,  but  is  entirely  of  a 
black  velvety  color.  Gray  fox  furnishes  fur  of  a  gray 
color,  varied  with  black.  Arctic  fox  furnishes  a 
wooly  fur,  which  on  some  parts  is  two  inches  in 
length ;  the  color  is  pure  white  in  winter,  varying  to> 
a  brownish  or  bluish  in  the  summer. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  169 

The  fur  of  various  other  animals  of  this  class  is 
similarly  valued,  either  for  its  warmth  or  its  beauty; 
such  as  that  of  the  bear,  badger,  lynx,  wolf,  rac- 
coon, dog. 

FURS  OBTAINED  FROM  PENNIPEDES. 

Seal  fur,  called  seal  skin  of  commerce,  is  obtained 
from  the  seals  and  the  otaries,  frequenting  various 
coasts,  chiefly  in  the  Southern  ocean.  The  color  of 
the  fur  is  yellowish,  variously  spotted,  and  marked 
with  brown. 

Furs  obtained  from  artiodactylous  animals  are 
few.  They  are  as  folio ws : 

Hfeindeer  fur,  of  the  reindeer,  which  belongs  to  the 
mostly  northern  parts  of  the  globe  as  Lapland  and 
Siberia,  is  of  a  gray-brown  or  light  gray  color, 
depending  upon  the  season. 

FURS   OBTAINED   FROM  INSECTIVOROUS  ANIMALS. 

Mole  fur,  of  the  common  mole,  is  ordinarily  of  a 
black  color,  but  is  occasionally  found  yellowish-white, 
or  gray,  and  even  orange.  The  silky  and  velvety  fur 
lies  smoothly  in  every  direction ;  the  short  hairs  grow 
perpendicular  from  the  skin. 

Muskrat  or  desman  fur  is  held  in  much  esteem. 
The  Russian  desman  is  blackish  above,  whitish 
beneath ;  it  has  long  silky  hair,  with  a  softer  felt 
beneath.  Desman  fur  is  chiefly  valued  on  account  of 
the  musky  odor  which  it  long  exhales. 

FURS   OBTAINED   FROM   GLIRENE   ANIMALS. 

Beaver  fur,  of  the  beaver  from  North  America,  has 
a  length  of  two  or  three  feet ;  its  color  is  generally 
chestnut,  rarely  black,  spotted,  or  nearly  white.  It 
has  short,  shining  hairs. 


170  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Squirrel  fur,  of  the  common  squirrel,  flying  squirrel, 
and  many  other  varieties,  is  of  many  different  colors. 
That  of  the  common  squirrel  is  white  beneath,  and 
red-brown  above,  and  in  winter  gray.  Grayish  furs 
are  also  found  on  the  market  under  the  name  of 
minever. 

Chinchilla  fur,  of  the  chinchilla,  constitutes  an 
important  article  of  commerce ;  it  is  of  a  lead  gray 
color.  The  fur  of  other  animals  of  this  class  is  also 
esteemed,  as  that  of  marmot,  hamster,  hare,  rab- 
bit, etc. 

The  most  extensive  trade  with  furs  is  led  by  Russia, 
and  secondly  by  England,  which  receives  from  her 
colonies  in  North  America.  The  great  source  of  furs 
is  the  Hudson  Bay  territory. 

HIDES   AND   SKINS. 

In  trade  we  generally  distinguish  between  hides 
and  skins.  Hide  is  generally  applied  to  the  undressed 
skins  of  the  larger  animals,  as  oxen,  horses,  etc. ; 
skin  is  especially  applied  to  that  of  small  animals,  as 
calf,  sheep,  or  goat.  In  their  natural  state,  they  are 
called  raw  hides  or  skins ;  they  are  preserved  either 
by  drying  or  salting.  The  salted  hides,  into  which 
alum,  soda,  or  potash  are  rubbed,  are  more  dura- 
ble than  dried  hides ;  the  weight  increases  by  salt- 
ing, but  not  by  tanning ;  therefore  they  are  gener- 
ally sold  at  a  lower  price. 

Besides  the  ox  and  the  cowhides  furnished  by  home 
trade,  vast  numbers  are  brought  into  market  from 
Monte  Video,  Buenos  Ayres,  Russia,  and  Northern 
Germany,  and  a  considerable  number  of  dried  buffalo 
hides  are  brought  from  the  East  Indies. 

Calf  skins  are,  when  tanned,  chiefly  used  for  the 
upper  leather  of  boots  and  shoes. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  171 

Sheep  and  lamb  skins  are  imported  in  large  quan- 
tity from  Australia,  tanned,  and  used  for  bookbind- 
ing, furniture,  gloves,  etc. 

Dog  skins  are  tanned  or  tawed  for  gloves,  and  for 
thin  shoes  or  boots. 

Seal  skins  are  manufactured  into  the  so  called 
"patent  leather"  by  varnishing  the  upper  surface. 

Hog  or  pig  skin  is  tanned  and  chiefly  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  saddles  for  horses,  etc. 

Kangaroo  skins  of  various  species  are  tanned  or 
tawed  in  Australia,  and  form  a  kind  of  leather  in 
great  favor  for  gentlemen's  dress-boots. 

/ 

LEATHER. 

Letter,   Cu/'r,  leader. 

Leather  is  the  dressed  skin  or  hide  of  an  animal,  or 
a  part  of  such  a  skin.  Leather  is  manufactured  by 
tanning,  tawing,  or  shamoying. 

Tanning  is  to  convert  a  hide  or  skin  into  leather 
by  the  usual  process  of  steeping  it  in  an  infusion  of 
oak  or  some  other  bark,  whereby  it  is  impregnated 
with  tannin,  or  tannic  acid,  which  exists  in  several 
species  of  bark,  and  is  thus  rendered  firm,  durable, 
and  in  some  degree  impervious  to  the  \vater.  Two 
main  kinds  of  tanned  leather  are  distinguished  as 
sole  leather  and  upper  leather. 

Sole  leather  is  made  from  the  largest  and  thickest 
hides  by  a  slow  process  of  tanning ;  it  is  of  many  dif- 
ferent qualities;  being  thick  and  strong,  it  is  used 
for  soles  of  boots  and  shoes  and  for  other  pur- 
poses. 

Upper  leather  is  made  from  a  thinner  kind  of  hides, 
and  often  the  tanning  is  dyed  and  treated  with  oil ; 
it  is  used  for  vamps  and  quarters  for  shoes.  Many 
different  kinds  appear  as : 


172  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Waxed  leather  which  should  be  of  a  light  brown 
color,  uniform  and  without  spots. 

Greased  leather  is  made  of  hides  as  well  as  skins ; 
after  tanning  it  is  dyed  black  on  the  grain  side  and 
greased. 

Of  greased  leather  the  Russian  leather  is  most 
esteemed  especially  for  its  aromatic  odor,  which  it 
derives  from  the  peculiar  oil  of  the  birch-bark  used  in 
tanning  it.  The  fact  that  its  odor  repels  moths  and 
other  insects,  renders  this  leather  particularly  valu- 
able for  binding  books.  At  first  it  was  prepared  only 
in  Russia,  but  is  now  imitated  in  all  countries. 

Sleek  leather  is  tanned  \vith  care,  but  not  greased ; 
by  varnishing  and  grinding  it  is  rendered  smooth, 
soft,  and  glossy;  it  is  generally  black,  but  also 
brown. 

Morocco  leather  is  prepared  in  large  quantities 
from  goat  skins  and  sheep  skins.  It  is  always  dyed 
on  the  outer  or  grain  side  with  some  color,  and  the 
leather  dresser,  in  finishing,  gives  a  peculiar  ribbed 
or  roughly  granulated  surface  to  it. 

Kid  skin  is  smooth,  elastic,  of  a  nice,  light  brown 
color;  it  is  used  for  gloves. 

Chagrin  is  strong,  but  rough  and  grained,  and 
dyed  in  many  different  colors. 

Shamoying  is  a  process  used  in  preparing  certain 
kinds  of  leather,  which  consists  of  frizzing  the  skin, 
and  working  oil  into  it  to  supply  the  place  of  the 
astringent  (tanning,  alum,  or  the  like)  ordinarily 
used  in  tanning.  The  leather  which  is  called  shammy 
is  soft  and  pliant ;  originally  it  was  made  from  the 
skin  of  the  chamois,  but  is  now  made  from  the  skins 
of  the  sheep,  goat,  kid,  deer,  and  calf.  It  is  brought 
on  the  market  either  white  or  dyed ;  the  dyed  is  gen- 
erally of  a  yellow  color.  Any  kind  of  shamoying 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  173 

leather  that    is  handsomely    finished,  colored,  and 
gilded  is  called  cordwain. 

Tawing  is  to  prepare  skins,  as  those  of  sheep,  lamb, 
goats,  and  kids,  for  gloves  and  the  like,  by  imbuing 
them  with  alum,  salt,  and  other  agents  for  softening 
and  bleaching  them.  White  kid  skin  should  be  of  a 
uniform  color,  smooth,  and  without  spots,  on  the 
outer  side  shining  and  the  inner  velvety. 

PARCHMENT. 

Pergament,    Parchemino   Pergament. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  parchment,  prepared 
from  the  skins  of  different  animals,  according  to 
their  intended  uses.  The  ordinary  writing  parch- 
ment is  made  from  those  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  she- 
goat;  the  finer  kind,  known  as  vellum,  is  made  from 
those  of  very  young  calves,-  kids,  and  lambs ;  the  thick 
common  kinds  for  drums,  tambourines,  etc.,  are 
those  from  old  goats  and  sheep. 

A  kind  of  parchment  is  made  from  the  water  leaf  or . 
unsized  paper  by  immersing  it  only  for  a  few  seconds 
in  a  bath  of  oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with  one  half  its 
volume  of  water.  It  resembles  accurately  the  ani- 
mal parchment,  and  is  in  some  respects  preferable  to 
the  old  kinds,  for  insects  attack  it  less,  and  it  can  be 
made  so  thin  as  to  be  used  for  tracing  paper,  and 
bears  wet  without  injury. 

6.— HAIRS. 

These  materials,  which  are  exclusively  found  on 
the  more  developed  vertebrates,  are  a  modification 
of  the  epidermis  and  consist  essentially  of  nucleated 
particles.  Although  different  to  their  exterior  quali- 
ties, the  inner  are  alike;  but  by  their  exterior  differ- 
ence, as  in  length,  firmness,  elasticity,  etc.,  they 


174  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

are  employed  for  different  articles,  and  constitute, 
therefore,  an  important  article  of  trade.  According 
to  their  different  degrees  of  fineness,  softness,  and 
firmness,  they  are  termed  hair,  wool,  bristles,  fur, 
etc. 

HAIR. 

Haar,  Foil  Crin,  Haar. 

Hair  is  distinguished  by  its  fineness,  softness,  and 
straight  or  slightly  curled  fibers.  The  following 
main  kinds  are  brought  into  market : 

Camel's  hair,  partly  from  dromedary,  partly  from 
bartrian  camel  is  gray  or  brown;  some  kinds  are 
coarse,  others  comparatively  soft  ana  fine.  It  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  pencils,  or  small 
brushes. 

Alpaca  hair,  from  alpaca  of  the  genus  Lama,  is 
straighter  than  that  of  the  sheep,  very  strong  in 
proportion  to  its  thickness,  and  breaks  little  in  comb- 
ing. The  fiber  is  small,  and  it  is  very  soft,  pliable, 
and  elastic. 

Vicugna,  a  South  American  mammal,  has  a  thick 
coat  of  very  fine  reddish-brown  wool,  and  long, 
pendent  hair  on  the  breast  and  belly. 

Goat  hair  is  obtained  from  several  species,  of  which 
angora  furnishes  the  best.  It  is  a  beautiful,  silky 
hair,  eight  inches  long.  Of  this  goat  hair  a  kind  of 
yarn  is  made  known  as  Turkish  yarn  or  camel  yarn, 
and  of  which  also  a  manufacture  of  camlets  is 
extensively  carried  on. 

Cashmere  goat  hair  is  very  long,  fine,  and  silky 
hair,  from  which  the  highly  valued  cashmere  shawls 
are  made.  It  is  not  so  much  in  Cashmere  that  this 
variety  of  goat  is  to  be  found,  as  in  Thibet,  from 
which  the  finest  goat  hair  is  imported  into  Cashmere, 
to  be  there  manufactured  into  shawls.  The  hair  is 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  175 

even  longer  than  that  of  the  angora  goat,  and  not, 
like  it,  curled  into  ringlets,  but  straight.  It  is  about 
eighteen  inches  long.  Imitations  of  cashmere 
shawls  are  manufactured  in  France  rather  exten- 
sively, some  from  the  Thibet  wool  entirely  and  others 
of  a  mixture  of  this  with  silk  and  cotton. 

Mohair,  the  wool  of  the  angora  goat,  a  native  of 
Asia  Minor.  Few  animals  have  so  beautiful  a  cover- 
ing as  the  fine,  soft,  silky,  and  always  pure  white 
wool  of  this  goat.  It  is  only  within  the  last  thirty 
years  that  mohair  has  been  in  great  demand,  but  its 
development  as  an  article  of  trade  has  been  simul- 
taneous with  that  of  alpaca. 

WOOL. 

WolJe,  Laine,  Ull. 

Wool  is  the  soft  and  curled  specie  of  hair  which 
grows  on  sheep  and  some  other  animals,  which 
sometimes  approaches  fur.  Wool  is  the  most  impor- 
tant of  all  animal  products  used  in  manufacture,  and 
ranks  next  to  the  cotton  as  a  raw  material  for  textile 
fabrics.  Its  use  as  an  article  for  clothing  is  almost 
universal  in  the  temperate  regions  of  the  globe. 

Wool  varies  in  character  according  to  the  peculiar 
breed  of  sheep  which  yield  it,  and  also  with  the  con- 
ditions of  the  soil,  food,  shelter,  and  climate  in  which 
the  sheep  are  raised.  Wool  of  the  first  quality  has 
fine,  soft,  elastic  fibers,  and  is  free  from  injurious 
impurities;  the  commercial  value  of  any  sample 
depends,  therefore,  upon  the  degree  in  which  it 
possesses  these  properties,  and  in  combed  wool,  it* 
also  depends  upon  the  length  of  its  threads.  Accord- 
ing as  the  sheep  are  sheared  once  or  twice  a  year,  the 
wool  is  termed  the  first  cut  or  second  cut ;  the  former 
is  always  preferred,  being  more  developed.  For 


176  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

technical  purposes,  shorn  fleeces  are  divided  into  two 
classes,  one  called  hogs  or  tegs,  the  other  wethers  or 
ewes.  The  former  are  the  first  fleeces  shorn,  the 
latter  are  those  of  the  second  or  succeeding  years ; 
but  the  meaning  of  these  terms  varies  a  little  in  dif- 
ferent districts.  The  fleeces  of  yearlings  have,  as  a 
rule,  longer  threads,  and  are  otherwise  of  superior 
quality  to  the  wool  of  older  animals.  As  long  stapled 
wools  are  used  for  worsted  goods,  and  the  short 
stapled  for  woolen  goods,  the  various  breeds  which 
yield  these  two  leading  kinds  are  naturally  divided 
into  long  fleeced  and  short  fleeced  classes  of  sheep. 
In  its  raw  state,  the  wool  is  covered  with  a  peculiar 
fat,  which  renders  it  viscid ;  by  washing  this  fat  is 
removed.  The  perfectly  cleansed  wool  loses  50  per 
cent  of  its  weight.  The  washing  of  the  wool  is  either 
performed  on  the  animal's  body,  or  after  it  has  been 
taken  from  its  skin ;  by  latter  method  hot  water  is 
used,  which  renders  the  wool  conglomerate  and 
makes  it  useful  only  for  carding.  The  wool  imported 
into  the  United  States  amounted  to  $19,688,108  in 
1892. 

WOOLEN  YARN. 

Wollengara,  Fit  de  laine,  Ullga.ru. 

Before  wool  can  be  manufactured  it  must  be  sub- 
jected to  some  preparation.  The  first  step  is  to  care- 
fully wash  the  raw  material  and  thus  remove  the  fat 
therefrom.  Some  wool  is  then  immediately  colored 
and  is  used  in  preparing  colored  fabrics. 

When  dry,  the  wool  is  separated  (by  hand  or 
machine)  and  thoroughly  loosened,  and  cleansed 
from  dust  and  impurities.  Long  wool,  which  is  to 
be  used  in  knitting  stockings  does  not  need  this 
preparation. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  177 

The  wool  is  then  combed  or  carded.  In  combing, 
-the  long  threads  are  separated  from  those  which  are 
short.  Combing  is  needed  only  by  wool  which  is 
designed  for  smooth  fabrics.  Half  combed  yarn  is 
produced  from  long,  carded  wool,  which  is  formed 
into  narrow  ribbons,  passed  through  hot  rollers, 
and  thoroughly  stretched.  This  yarn  is  used  in  the 
production  of  carpets,  embroidery,  and  ornamental 
articles. 

In  order  to  make  the  wool  for  carding  more  pliable 
and  prevent  its  becoming felty,  it  is  soaked  in  olein  or 
•other  oils.  The  process  of  carding  is  accomplished 
foy  means  of  a  carding  machine,  provided  with  teeth 
fastened  to  strips  of  leather.  The  wool  is  then  cut 
into  square  fleeces,  and  these  are  carded  into  loose 
threads  which  are  then  spun  more  firmly  and  finally 
•wound  into  firm  yarns. 

The  yarn  is  then  wound  into  skeins  which  generally 
-weigh  about  a  pound,  and  are  packed  according  to 
their  weight  into  bundles,  each  variety  bearing  a 
number. 

Yarn  is  usually  dyed  when  it  makes  its  appearance 
in  trade.  The  finest  yarns  are  the  zephyr  yarns, 
which  came  on  the  market  in  1884.  Fantasia  yarn 
is  the  name  applied  to  the  fine  yarns  produced  from 
mohair  or  alpaca.  The  trade  in  woolen  yarns  has 
materially  increased  in  late  years. 

WOOLEN   MATERIALS. 

The  materials  produced  from  sheep's  wool  are  of 
two  classes,  namely,  cloths  and  draperies. 

CLOTHS. 

Cloth  is  woven  on  a  weaver's  bench,  where  it  is 
stretched  out  by  means  of  wide  strips  which  are 
attached  to  its  sides.  Various  grades  of  yarns  are 


178  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

employed  in  weaving.  After  weaving,  the  loose, 
thin  fabric  is  subjected  to  the  following  treatment, 
namely,  napping,  milling,  carding,  shearing,  and 
pressing. 

By  napping,  the  long  knots  and  unclean  parts  are 
removed.  Milling  causes  the  cloth  to  contract  and 
become  firm  at  the  same  time  the  material  is  cleaned 
from  fat.  Carding  brings  the  felty  wool  to  the  sur- 
face, which  is  then  sheared  to  produce  the  smooth 
outer  surface  of  the  cloth.  Pressing  lends  a  firmer 
and  better  appearance  to  the  cloth.  Smoothing  and 
brushing  also  constitutes  a  part  of  the  work  of  fin- 
ishing cloth.  It  is  usually  passed  through  rollers 
and  subjected  to  the  action  of  steam  in  smoothingit. 

The  bales  of  cloth  are  of  various  widths,  both 
single  and  double  breadths.  The  finest  cloth  is  usu- 
ally woven  widest.  The  quality  of  the  cloth  is  usu- 
ally determined  by  the  fineness  of  the  yarn  and  the 
number  of  threads  which  are  used  in  weaving. 
Woolen  cloth  appears  in  its  natural  color,  though  it 
is  often  made  of  dyed  yarns  and  is  sometimes  dyed 
after  weaving. 

Cashmere  may  be  distinguished  from  other  cloths 
by  the  fact  that  it  is  twilled.  In  later  times  the 
manufacture  of  cashmere  has  been  largely  superseded 
by  satins,  buckskins,  velours,  etc.  Beaver  and  lady- 
coating  are  not  twilled. 

The  best  woolen  cloths  and  buckskins  are  produced 
in  the  Netherlands,  France,  England,  Germany  and 
Austria. 

Table  spreads,  flannels  and  felts  are  to  be  classified 
among  the  woolen  cloths  as  well  as  the  long  haired 
materials  produced  in  Saxony. 

Mixed  Fabrics. — Wool  and  silk  or  cotton  and  wool 
are  often  woven  into  the  same  cloth.  Brocaded  and 
cashmere  shawls  belong  to  this  class  of  goods,  also 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  179 

Turkish  fez  (wool  and  silk)  and  mixed  cloths  from 
"wool,  alpaca,  mohair,  and  cotton  and  silk  -which  are 
produced  in  Bradford. 

The  United  States  is  the  third  wool  manufacturing 
nation  of  the  world ;  the  industry's  principal  seats 
are  in  New  England,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania, 
though  it  is  gradually  spreading  throughout  the 
Northern  states. 

DRAPERIES.    (DRESS  GOODS.) 

The  wool  used  for  draperies,  excepting  merinoes, 
need  not  be  of  a  fine  texture.  Draperies  are  usually 
produced  from  fine  combed  yarns,  e.  g.,  thibets,  me- 
rinos, bombazines,  delaines,  etc.;  of  hard  wool,  as 
Orleans,  plush,  serge,  table  damask,  etc.  Draperies 
are  smooth,  twilled,  corded,  patterned,  and  vel- 
vety. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  some  of  the  smooth 
draperies :  Bucan,  moor,  popeline,  long  ribs. 

The  twilled  materials  are :  Merino,  thibet,  serge, 
satin,  lasting,  coating,  gurte,  and  borden. 

The  patterned  cloths:  Damask,  brocades,  shawls 
(plaids  and  tartans),  etc. 

Woolen  velvets :  Felbel,  velvet  or  plush  used  in 
producing  hats  and  shoes  and  variety  of  other  arti- 
cles. 

Then  there  are  manifold  varieties  of  printed  woolen 
goods  and  knitware,  stockings,  jackets,  drawers, 
etc. 

BRISTLES. 
Schweins    borste,    Soi  de  pore,   Borst. 

Bristles  are  the  strong  hairs  growing  on  the  back 
of  the  hog  and  wild  boar.  The  quality  of  bristles 
depends  on  their  length,  stiffness,  color,  and  straight- 
ness,  white  being  most  valuable.  The  best  bristles 


180  THE    ^KNOWLEDGE   OF   WAKES. 

are  produced  by  pigs  inhabiting  cold  countries. 
Bristles  come  into  market  either  sorted  or  unsorted. 
Sorted  bristles  are  extensively  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  brushes,  pencils :  The  unsorted  bristles  are 
used  as  a  material  for  stuffing.  The  northern  coun- 
tries of  Europe  furnish  good  bristles. 

HORSE    HAIR. 

Horse  hair  is  obtained  from  the  common  horse. 
The  mane  and  tail  as  well  as  the  hair  come  into  mar- 
ket ;  it  is  usually  long  and  straight,  and  is  then  used 
in  its  natural  state  or  dyed  for  the  manufacture  of  some 
cloth,  or  curled  by  spinning,  boiling  in  water  and 
dried  in  the  oven,  and  is  then  used  for  stuffing  mat- 
tresses, etc. 

QUILLS. 

Hair  is  termed  quill  when  it  is  thick,  pointed  and 
firm,  as  that  of  porcupine,  which  is  found  in  North- 
ern Asia  and  Southern  Europe.  The  quills  are 
used  for  penholders,  playthings,  etc. 


c.-HORN. 

Horn,  Came,  Horn. 

Horn  is  a  hard,  projecting,  and  usually  pointed 
organ,  growing  upon  the  heads  of  certain  animals, 
especially  of  the  ruminants,  as  cattle,  goats,  and  the 
like.  The  horns  are  employed  for  useful  and  orna- 
mental purposes.  The  most  important  are  those  of 
the  ox,  buffalo,  and  two  or  three  species  of  deer,  and 
of  sheep  and  goats.  Horn  can  be  softened  and  split 
into  thin  laminae,  or  pressed  into  moulds;  and  as  it 
recovers  its  peculiar  characteristics  of  flexibility, 
toughness  and  transparency,  when  cold,  it  is  partic- 
ularly adapted  for  a  great  variet}'  of  purposes.  It 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  181 

can  also  be  dyed  in  various  colors.  Solution  of  gold 
in  aqua  regia,  dyes  it  red;  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver  in  nitric  acid,  black ;  a  paste  of  red  lead,  made 
•with  a  solution  of  potash,  colors  it  brown ;  so  that, 
with  a  proper  arrangement  and  application  of  these 
materials,  the  most  admirable  imitations  of  the  much 
more  costly  tortoise  shell  can  be  produced.  The 
more  common  vegetable  dyestuffs,  as  log-wood, 
saffron,  indigo,  etc.,  will  also  color  it,  but  none  so 
permanently  nor  so  brightly  as  the  metallic  mate- 
rials. Horn  is  employed  in  making  handles  for 
umbrellas,  knives,  forks,  etc.,  and  even  ornamental 
boxes,  and  a  variety  of  other  articles.  Combs  are 
made  out  of  the  flattened  sheets,  and  beautiful 
carvings  are  made  out  of  the  solid  parts  of  buf- 
falo horns.  Ox  horns,  too,  are  sometimes  of  a  fine 
quality  and  color,  and  are  fashioned  into  drinking 
cups,  and  other  articles,  often  highly  ornamented. 
Deer  horns,  which,  strictly  speaking,  are  bone,  have 
a  very  limited  application ;  they  are  employed  in  this 
country  for  making  knife-handles,  much  in  favor  for 
pocketknives. 

WHALE  BONE. 

Fischbein,  Baleine,  Fiskben, 

Whalebones  are  firm,  elastic  substances,  resembling 
horn,  taken  from  the  upper  jaw  of  whales.  Whale 
bones  vary  in  length  from  a  few  inches  up  to  ten. 
Their  color  is  usually  of  a  bluish  black,  but  in  some 
species  they  are  striped  longitudinally  with  bands  of 
a  whitish  color ;  and  they  terminate  at  the  point  in 
a  number  of  coarse,  black  fibers  of  the  baleen,  which 
fibers  are  found  more  or  less,  down  both  sides  of  the 
blade.  These  fibers  are  much  used  by  brushmakers. 
There  are  three  principal  kinds  in  the  market,  and 
they  are  generally  known  as  whale  fins.  The  first  is 


182  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

the  Greenland,  or  Davis  Strait,  and  North  Sea  fins; 
second,  the  South  Sea,  or  black  fish  fins ;  third,  the 
Northwest  coast,  or  American  whale  fins.  Whale- 
bone requires  some  preparation  before  being  fit  ior 
use ;  this,  however,  is  very  simple.  It  is  first  trimmed. 
The  blades  are  then  boiled  in  water  for  several  hours, 
until  they  become  soft  enough  to  be  cut  easily  with  a 
common  knife.  The  workmen  then  cut  them  into 
lengths  fitted  for  the  purposes  to  which  they  are  to 
be  applied.  They  are  chiefly  used  in  strips,  such  as 
stay-bones  and  umbrella  ribs.  Generally,  the  boiling 
is  combined  with  a  dyeing  process,  to  make  the 
whalebone  perfectly  black,  which  is  preferred  to  its 
disagreeable  natural  color.  Strips  of  rattan  canes 
dyed  black  are  used  as  a  cheap  kind  of  artificial 
whalebone,  but  the  best  imitation  is  made  of  vulcan- 
ized or  prepared  caoutchouc,  which  in  many  respects 
is  superior  to  the  real  whalebone. 

TORTOISE  SHELL. 

Schildpadd,  Ecaille,  Skoldpadd. 

Tortoise  shell  is  the  large  scale  of  the  carapace,  or 
shield,  a  species  of  sea  turtle.  It  is  found  in  the 
Indian  ocean,  Amboyna,  New  Guinea,  Havana,  and 
the  Red  sea.  A  remarkable  peculiarity  in  this  species 
is  the  arrangement  of  the  thirteen  plates  forming 
carapace,  which  instead  of  being  joined  together  by 
their  edges,  so  as  to  make  apparently  one  piece,  are 
thinned  off  at  their  edges  and  overlap  each  other 
like  the  tiles  of  a  roof.  They  vary  in  size  according 
to  the  part  of  the  shield  they  occupy.  The  beautiful 
mottled  color  and  semi-transparent  characters  of 
this  material  are  well  known.  A  remarkable  quality 
is  possessed  by  tortoise  shell  which  increases  its 
usefulness  for  the  ornamental  purposes  to  which  it  is 
generally  applied, — that  is,  its  property  of  being 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  183 

easily  softened  by  a  heat  equal  to  boiling  water,  and 
of  retaining  any  form  when  cold  which  has  been 
given  it  while  heated.  Pieces  can  also  be  welded 
together  by  pressure  of  hot  irons  properly  applied. 
The  chief  use  of  tortoise  shell  is  making  combs  for 
the  hair ;  but  it  is  also  used  for  inlaying  small  pieces 
of  ornamental  furniture  and  various  other  fancy 
objects. 

CATGUT. 

Darmsaiten,  Cordes  de  boyau,  Tarmstrangar. 

Catgut  is  made  from  the  intestines  of  sheep,  which 
are  first  cleansed  and  freed  from  the  loose  fat,  then 
prepared  by  soaking  and  partial  putrefaction  to 
loosen  the  different  membranes  of  which  the  intes- 
tine is  composed.  The  small  intestines  are  used  for 
catgut.  The  coarse  kinds  of  catgut  strings  are  used 
for  pulle\r  and  lathe  bands,  drill  bows,  hatters  bows, 
and  for  other  purposes  where  a  strong  cord  subject 
to  friction  is  required ;  the  finer  kinds  are  twisted 
into  whip  cord,  and  are  used  for  fishing  tackle  and 
the  strings  of  musical  instruments.  For  the  latter 
purpose,  a  very  superior  quality  is  required.  The 
best,  called  Roman  strings,  are  made  chiefly  in  Milan. 
Good  strings  should  be  uniformly  thick  throughout, 
elastic,  and  remain  transparent  when  stretched. 

Gold-beaters'  skin  is  a  delicate  membrane  prepared 
from  the  large  intestine  of  the  ox,  and  is  used  as  a 
dressing  for  slight  wounds,  as  the  fabric  of  court- 
plaster,  but  chiefly  by  gold-beaters. 

a'.— HARTSHORN,   BONES,   IVORY,  ETC. 

HARTSHORN. 

Hirchhorn,  Carne  de  cerf,  Hjorthorn. 

Hartshorn  is  a  term  given  to  the  antlers  of  several 
species  of  hart.  Its  composition  is  very  different 


184  THE  KNOWLEDGE  OP  WARES. 

from  that  of  persistent  horns,  as  those  of  the  ox, 
for  example,  and  is  identical,  or  nearly  so,  with  that 
of  bone ;  they  differ  from  the  persistent  horns  in 
being  more  compact,  and  being  yearly  shedded. 
Hartshorns  are  brought  on  the  market  either  whole, 
when  it  is  chiefly  employed  by  turners,  or  in  form  of 
chips  when  it  is  used  for  jelly. 

BONES. 

Kiiochen,  Os,  Ben. 

Bone  is  the  hard,  clarified  tissue  of  the  skeleton  of 
vertebrate  animals  consisting  very  largely  of  calcic 
carbonate,  calcic  phosphate,  and  gelatine.  The 
uses  to  which  a  bone  may  be  put  are  various.  In 
the  making  of  soups,  bones  form  a  constant  ingre- 
dient, and  become  useful  in  supplying  gelatine.  Bone 
is  largely  used  in  making  the  handles  of  small 
brushes,  the  more  common  table  knives  and  forks, 
and  penknives,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  cheaper 
kinds  of  combs.  Bone  is  likewise  serviceable  in  the 
arts  of  yielding  bone  ash,  boneblack,  dissolved  bones, 
phosphorus,  and  superphosphates ;  also  certain  oils 
and  fats,  which  are  employed  in  forming  lampblack, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

IVORY. 

Blfeabeia,  Ivoire,  Elfenbea. 

Ivory  is  the  name  commercially  given  not  only  to 
the  substance  constituting  the  tusks  of  the  elephant, 
but  also  to  that  of  the  tusks  of  the  hippopotamus  and 
walrus,  the  horn-like  tusk  of  the  norwhal,  etc. 

The  ivory  of  the  tusks  of  the  African  elephant  is 
held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  the  manufacturer  on 
account  of  its  greater  density  and  whiteness.  The 
tusks  are  of  all  sizes,  from  a  few  ounces  in  weight  to 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  185 

more  than  170  pounds  each.  There  are  various 
chemical  processes  by  which  it  may  be  dyed  in  vari- 
ous colors,  as  black,  blue,  green,  yellow,  red,  and 
violet.  It  is  used  in  manufacturing  articles  of  orna- 
mentation or  utility.  The  so-called  ivory  obtained 
from  the  hippopotamus  is  in  special  favor  with  den- 
tists for  making  false  teeth,  on  account  of  its 
pure  white  color  and  freedom  from  grain.  The  fossil 
ivory  which  is  found  in  considerable  quantity  in 
Siberia  and  the  arctic  regions,  is  uncommonly  hard 
and  brittle;  it  is  also  whiter,  but  lacks  the  waxy 
softness.  At  present,  the  demand  for  ivory  is  stead- 
ily increasing,  owing  to  the  great  taste  and  skill  of 
some  of  the  artists  who  work  in  this  material,  and 
as  the  supply  increases  but  very  slowly,  it  is  likely  to 
become  very  dear.  The  beautiful  art  of  ivory-carv- 
ing has  recently  made  extraordinary  progress  in 
Europe,  as  has  been  shown  by  works  in  ivory  sent  to 
the  various  international  exhibitions. 


e.— FEATHER,  DOWN,  QUILL,  PLUMAGE. 

FEATHERS. 
Feder,  Plume,  Fjader. 

Feathers  are  complicated  modifications  of  the  teg- 
umentary  system  forming  the  external  covering  or 
plumage  of  birds,  and  peculiar  to  this  class  of  ani- 
mals. An  ordinary  feather  consists  of  the  quill  or 
hollow  basal  part  ofthe  stem,  the  shaft  or  rachis,  form- 
ing the  upper,  or  solid  part  ofthe  stem ;  the  veins  or 
webs  implanted  on  the  rachis  consist  of  a  series  of 
slender  laminae,  or  barbs,  which  usually  bear  barbules, 
in  turn  usually  bear  barbicles  and  interlocking  hooks, 
by  which  they  are  fastened  together.  The  chief 


186  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

uses  to  which  feathers  are  applied  in  the  arts  are  three, 
— pens,  due  to  the  peculiar  elasticity  of  the  barrels; 
bed-feathers,  due  to  the  combined  softness  and  elas- 
ticity of  the  barbs;  ornaments,  due  to  the  graceful 
forms  and  delicate  tints  of  the  whole  feather. 

Bed-feathers  consist  chiefly  of  goose  feathers. 
Poultry  feathers  as  those  of  turkeys,  ducks,  and 
fowls  generally  are  less  esteemed  on  account  of  their 
deficient  elasticity.  Wild  duck  feathers  are  soft  and 
elastic,  but  contain  an  oil  difficult  to  remove.  The 
larger  establishments  now  prepare  bed-fea.thers  by 
steaming,  which  is  found  to  be  a  more  profitable  and 
efficient  process  than  any  other.  The  down,  which 
is  of  so  light  and  exquisite  a  texture  as  to  have 
become  the  symbol  of  softness,  is  mostly  taken  from 
the  breasts  of  birds,  and  forms  a  warm  and  delicate 
stuffing  for  beds,  pillows,  and  coverlets.  The  most 
valuable  is  that  obtained  from  the  eider  duck. 

Feathers  used  for  headdresses,  or  other  purposes 
of  ornamentation,  are  selected  according  to  their 
forms  and  colors  which  they  display,  and  are  brought 
on  the  market  either  in  their  natural  state  or  dyed. 
The  kinds  of  feathers  chiefly  used  for  ornaments  are 
those  of  the  ostrich,  adjutant,rhea  or  American  ostrich, 
emu,  osprey,  egret,  heron,  antrenga,  swan,  peacock, 
etc.  Thewhiteandgraymarabout  feathers,  imported 
from  Calcutta,  are  beautifully  light  and  soft,  and 
are  in  demand  for  headdresses,  muffs,  and  boas.  The 
flossy  kinds  of  rhea  feathers  are  used  for  military 
plumes  and  the  long  brown  wing  feathers  for  brooms 
and  brushes.  Osprey  and  egret  are  mostly  used  for 
military  plumes. 

Quills,  the  large  feathers  of  the  wings  of  birds,  the 
hollow  tubes  of  which,  being  properly  cleaned  of  all 
oily  or  fatty  matter,  and  dried,  are  used  for  making 
pens  to  write  with.  Those  plucked  from  geese  are 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  187 

most  generally  used,  but  swan  and  turkey  quills 
are  not  uncommon;  and  for  very  fine  writing  and 
for  pen  and  ink  drawing,  crow  quills  are  preferred  to 
all  others.  At  one  time,  the  collection  and  prepara- 
tion of  quills  formed  a  very  large  and  important 
branch  of  industry,  but  the  introduction  of  metal- 
lic pens  has  reduced  it  to  very  small  limits.  Good 
quills  should  be  elastic,  not  too  hard,  nor  too  soft; 
the  thickest  and  heaviest  are  the  best. 


f.—  GELATINE. 

This  term,  although  only  applied  to  one  variety  of 
the  substance,  obtained  by  dissolving  the  soluble 
portion  of  the  gelatinous  tissues  of  animals,  never- 
theless belongs  also  to  isinglass  and  glue,  which 
are  modifications  of  the  same  material. 

Gelatine  and  glue  signify  the  more  or  less  carefully 
prepared  jelly  of  the  mammalia,  but  the  term  isin- 
glass is  only  applied  to  certain  gelatinous  parts  of 
fishes,  which  possess  an  exceeding  richness  in  gelatine, 
and  are  usually  merely  dried  and  used  without  any 
other  preparation  than  that  of  a  minute  division  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  the  action. 

GELATINE.      (PROPER.) 

Gelatine  is  prepared  for  commercial  purposes  from 
a  variety  of  animal  substances,  but  chiefly  from  the 
softer  parts  of  the  hides  of  oxen  and  calves,  and  the 
skin  of  sheep,  such  as  the  thin  portion  which  covers 
the  abdomen,  ears,  etc.,  also  from  bones  and  other 
parts  of  animals.  It  comes  on  the  market  in  thin, 
oblong,  transparent  sheets,  of  a  white,  yellowish,  or 
red  color ;  in  the  latter  case  it  is  covered  with  cochi- 
neal. 


188  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

The  purity  of  gelatine  may  be  very  easily  tested, 
thus :  Pour  upon  the  dry  gelatine  a  small  quantity 
of  boiling  water;  if  pure  it  will  form  a  thick,  gluey, 
colorless  solution,  free  from  smell;  but  if  made 
from  impure  materials,  it  will  give  off  a  very  offen- 
sive odor  and  have  a  yellow,  gluey  consistency.  No 
article  manufactured  requires  such  careful  selection 
of  material  and  cleanly  manipulation  to  insure  a 
good  marketable  character ;  when  purity  is  desired 
all  artificially  colored  varieties  should  be  avoided, 
however  temptingly  gotten  up,  unless  they  are 
merely  required  for  decorative  purposes  and  not  for 
food. 

GLUE. 

Leim,  Colle  forte,    I.'nn. 

Glue  differs  from  gelatine  only  in  the  care  taken  in 
its  manufacture,  and  in  the  selection  of  the  materials 
from  which  itismade;  almost  every  animal  substance 
Avill  yield  it,  hence  all  kinds  of  animal  refuse  find  their 
way  to  the  glue  maker's  boilers.  Nevertheless,  the 
impossibility  of  preserving,  for  any  length  of  time, 
the  materials  required  for  this  manufacture,  renders 
it  necessary  to  adopt  some  system  in  choosing  and 
preserving  them,  until  sufficient  quantities  are  col- 
lected, without  fermentation  and  decomposition. 
Hence  the  refuse  of  tanneries,  consisting  of  the 
clippings  of  hides,  hoofs,  ear,  and  tail  pieces  of  ox, 
calf,  and  sheep,  is  preferred,  because  these  can  be 
dressed  with  lime,  which  removes  the  hair. 

Besides  its  use  in  joinery,  cabinet  making,  and  simi- 
lar operations,  glue  is  used  by  paper  makers  and  in 
dressing  silks ;  and  for  the  last  two  purposes  fine 
light-colored  kinds  in  thin  cakes  are  made;  large 
•quantities  are  employed  also  by  paperhangers. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  189 

Good  glue  should  be  of  a  yellowish  color,  clear  and 
translucent,  and  in  breaking,  like  glass. 

ISINGLASS. 

Fiscbleim,    Colic  de  poisson,  Fisklim. 

Isinglass  is  a  semi-transparent,  whitish  and  very 
pure  lorm  of  gelatine,  formerly  prepared  only  from 
sounds  or  air  bladders  of  various  species  of  common 
sturgeons  found  in  the  rivers  of  Western  Russia.  The 
necessities  of  modern  commerce  have,  however,  led 
to  the  discovery  that  the  same  part  in  many  other 
fishes  forms  good  isinglass ;  and  instead  of  Russia,  as 
formerly,  being  the  only  producing  country,  now 
large  quantities  are  produced  in  America,  Hudson 
Bay  territory,  and  New  York ;  an  excellent  variety  is 
brought  from  Canada,  where  it  is  likely  to  prove  the 
source  of  a  profitable  industry. 

The  commercial  varieties  of  this  material  are  num- 
erous and  a  thorough  knowledge  can  only  be 
obtained  by  considerable  personal  acquaintance 
with  them. 

Isinglass  is  of  great  value  in  clarifying  beer  and 
other  liquids.  For  this  reason  isinglass,  \vhich  has 
been  found  the  best  gelatine  for  the  purpose,  is  very 
largely  used  by  brewers. 

Good  isinglass  should  be  of  a  light  yellow  color,  an 
almost  horn-like  appearance,  and  perfectly  soluble 
in  boiling  water. 

g.— FATS. 

Fats  are  those  oily  substances  which  are  solid  at 
an  ordinary  temperature,  and  are  composed  of  an 
admixture  of  three  separate  fats, — margarine,  stear- 
ine,  and  oleine,  of  which  the  two  former  are  solid, 


190  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

and  the  latter  fluid  at  an  ordinary  temperature. 
The  solid  animal  oils  found  in  commerce  are  butter, 
lard,  tallow,  mare's  grease,  goose  grease,  neat's- 
foot  oil. 

BUTTER. 

Butter,    Beurre,    Smor. 

Butter  is  the  fatty  substance  present  in  the  milk  of 
mammalia,  and  capable  of  being  extracted  from  it. 
The  amount  of  butter  in  cow's  milk  is  about  4-  per 
cent,  though  the  kind  of  pasture,  quantity  of  milk, 
and  general  condition,  influence  the  relative  quan- 
tity in  the  several  ingredients  of  milk.  In  the  extrac- 
tion of  butter,  the  milk  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  the 
cream  which  rises  to  the  surface  is  skimmed  oft",  and 
put  into  an  earthen  vessel,  where  it  lies  several  days 
till  enough  has  been  collected  for  churning.  As  a 
quicker  method  of  obtaining  cream,  separators  are 
used.  It  is  found  that  butter  can  be  obtained  from 
mere  agitation,  without  the  admission  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  At  the  same  time  in  the  ordinary  manner 
of  churning,  oxygen  has  the  subordinate  duty  of 
combining  with  the  sugar  of  the  milk,  and  forming 
lactic  acid,  which  in  its  turn  sours  the  milk,  and  sep- 
arates therefrom  the  caseine  (cheese  matter)  in  mi- 
nute clots  or  flakes,  yielding  what  is  commonly  called 
sour  or  butter-milk. 

The  process  of  churning  must  be  conducted  at  a 
medium  rate.  If  too  quickly  performed,  the  butter 
is  soft  and  frothy,  and  is  said  to  burst ;  when  too 
slowly  made,  it  is  highly  tenacious,  strong,  and 
badly  flavored. 

When  newly  prepared,  the  butter  is  called  fresh  or 
sweet  butter,  and  is  of  a  yellow  color,  which  is  \vell 
known  to  be  deeper  as  the  pasture  on  which  the  cows 
have  been  fed  is  richer,  and  hence  the  poorer  kinds  of 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  191 

butter  are  often  artificially  colored  with  annatto.  A 
large  quantity  of  the  butter  sent  into  market  has 
more  or  less  common  salt  added,  for  the  purpose  of 
preserving  it. 

The  adulteration  to  which  butter  is  liable  is  an 
undue  proportion  of  salt  and  water,  occasionally 
upwards  of  33  per  cent  of  the  total  weight. 

The  United  States'  exports  of  butter  in  1891 
amounted  to  15,187,114  pounds  or  $2,197,106. 
Wisconsin  is  the  leading  dairy  state  in  the  Union. 

LARD. 

Schweiaeschemalz,  Lard  de  pork,  Spack. 

Lard  is  the  fat  of  the  hog.  Until  after  the  first 
quarter  of  the  present  century,  lard  was  only  used 
for  culinary  purposes,  and  as  the  base  of  various 
ointments  in  medical  use.  The  enormous  extent, 
however,  to  which  pork  was  raised  in  America,  ren- 
dered it  necessary  to  find  some  other  application  for 
so  valuable  a  material,  and  large  quantities  were 
pressed  at  a  low  temperature,  by  which  stearine  and 
oleine  were  separated.  The  former  was  used  for 
candle-making  and  the  latter  became  a  verv  impor- 
tant article  of  commerce,  under  the  name  of  lard-oil, 
•which  was  found  to  be  a  valuable  lubricant  for 
machinery. 

In  1891,  the  United  States  exported  498,343,927 
pounds,  amounting  to  $34,414,323. 

TALLOW. 

Talg,  Luif.  Talg. 

Tallow  is  the  fat  of  oxen  and  sheep,  especially  the 
fat  which  envelops  the  kidneys  and  other  parts  of 
the  viscera  rendered  down  or  nelted.  The  qualities 
of  this  solid  oil  render  it  pal  icularly  well  adapted 


192  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OP  WARES. 

for  making  candles  and  soap,  and  for  the  purpose  of 
preserving  machinery  from  rust. 

Good  tallow  should  possess  a  white  or  yellowish 
color,  must  not  be  musty  or  of  a  red  tint ;  in  melting 
it  a  clear,  colorless  fluid  should  be  obtained ;  it  is  fre- 
quently adulterated  with  flour,  which  can  easily  be 
detected  by  the  sediment  in  melting  it. 

MARE'S  GREASE,  GOOSE  GREASE,  AND  NEAT'S-FOOT  OIL. 

Mare's  grease  is  not  so  solid  as  tallow ;  it  is  of  a 
yellowish  brown  color,  exported  mostly  from  Monte 
Video  and  Buenos  Ayers,  where  vast  numbers  of 
horses  are  slaughtered  for  their  hides,  bones,  and 
grease ;  it  is  particularly  valuable  as  a  lubricant  for 
machinery. 

Goose  grease  is  another  soft  fat,  much  valued  by 
housewives  for  many  purposes,  but  excepting  that  it 
is  sold  in  some  districts  as  a  remedial  agent,  it  has 
no  commercial  importance. 

Neat 's-foot  oil  is  a  soft  fat  procured  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  feet  and  intestines  of  oxen  for  food  as 
sold  in  the  tripe  shops.  The  quantity  obtained  is 
not  very  great,  but  it  is  in  great  demand  by  curriers, 
for  dressing  leather. 

FISH  OILS. 

Thran,  Huile  de  poisson,  Tran. 

Fish  oil  is  obtained  from  several  species  of  whales 
and  seals  by  draining  the  oils  out  of  the  thick  layer 
of  blubber,  which  lies  immediately  under  the  skin  and 
over  the  muscular  layer  of  flesh ;  it  is  also  obtained 
from  the  liver  of  several  species  of  fishes  as  cod, 
herring,  shark,  etc. 

The  whales  which  are  fished  for  their  oils  are : 
1.    The  Sperm  Whale.— This  large  creature  is  from 
60  to  70  feet  in  length,  and  yields  generally  from 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARE».  193 

5,000  to  6,000  gallons  of  oil.  The  finest  is  taken 
from  a  great  reservoir  in  its  head.  The  oil  of  this 
specie  is  of  a  quality  superior  to  others,  and  is  known 
as  spermaceti.  It  consists  essentially  of  ethereal 
salts  of  palmitic  acid  with  ethal  and  other  hydrocar- 
bon bases.  The  substance  of  spermaceti  is  used  in 
making  candles,  ointments,  cosmetics,  etc. 

2.  The  Right  Whale,  which  forms  the  chief  object 
of  the  northern  fisheries,  but  other  species  of  balaenae 
are  sought,  in  different  parts  of  the  world,  for  the 
sake  of  their  oil. 

A  large  quantity  of  very  valuable  oil  is  obtained 
from  seals,  and  the  seal  fishery,  as  a  means  of  obtain- 
ing oil,  is  only  second  in  importance  to  that  of  the 
whale.  It  is  carried  on  chiefly  on  the  shores  of  New 
Foundland,  Greenland,  and  Labrador.  Like  the 
whales,  the  seals  have  a  thin  layer  of  blubber,  in 
which  the  oil  is  contained. 

The  first  draining  from  the  blubber  is  of  a  fine, 
clear,  pale-straw  color,  the  next  yellow  or  tinged ; 
and  the  last  is  brown  or  dark.  The  whale  and  seal 
oils  are  nearly  all  used  for  illuminating  oils,  and  to 
this  purpose  they  are  admirably  adapted  owing  to 
their  great  illuminating  power.  They  are  also  the 
best  lubricants  for  machinery. 

Of  the  true  fish  oils,  that  of  the  cod  is  first  in 
importance ;  more  especially  since  its  medicinal  prop- 
erties were  discovered.  It  is  made  only  from  the  liver 
of  the  fish.  Oil  is  also  occasionally  made  from  her- 
ring, but  not  in  very  great  quantities ;  it  is  made 
from  the  whole  of  the  fish.  The  lightest  of  all  the 
fish  oils  is  made  from  the  liver  of  the  common  shark. 
Besides  the  consumption  in  lamps  and  for  medicinal 
purposes,  fish  oil  is  used  for  making  some  kinds  of 
soap. 


13 


194-  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Good  fish  oil  should  be  clear  and  rusty.  In  pur- 
chasing it,  it  should  be  carefully  examined  that  no 
water  or  any  sediment  appears  in  the  vessel. 

SOAP. 

Soap  is  a  product  yielded  by  cooking  fat  with 
alkali  or  soda  which  results  in  the  production  of 
stearine,  palmitine,  and  glycerine.  Alkali  soaps 
harden  when  cooled  while  natron  soaps  remain  soft. 
According  to  the  fats  used,  soaps  are  termed  tallow, 
palm  oil,  olive  oil,  and  cocoanut  oil  soaps,  and  the 
like. 

Soapmakers  first  dissolve  in  boiling  water  six  to 
eight  cwt.  of  crude  soda-ash,  then  add  pure  caustic 
lime  and  boil  the  mixture.  When  the  lime  has  ren- 
dered the  soda  caustic,  the  boiling  subsides  and  the 
lye  is  ready  for  use. 

Cured,  or  white  soap,  is  yielded  by  reducing  the  lye 
by  boiling  to  the  consistency  of  paste.  A  few  shovels 
of  common  salt  are  thrown  in  and  the  lye  separates. 
The  operation  of  adding  and  boiling  with  lye  is 
repeated  until  the  tallow  is  saturated  with  soda. 
The  soap  is  now  treated  with  a  weaker  lye  and,  by 
using  more  or  less  water,  is  brought  to  the  consistency 
the  maker  requires. 

Pale,  or  yellow  soap,  is  produced  by  adding  to  the 
mixture  a  quantity  of  resin  and  treating  it  simi- 
larly to  the  foregoing.  When  the  proper  tempera- 
ture is  reached,  the  soap  is  removed  into  cast-iron 
frames,  where,  after  solidifying,  which  requires  three 
days,  it  is  cut  into  slabs  and  then  transversely  into 
bars  by  means  of  a  wire,  and  is  then  ready  for  the 
market. 

Mottled  soap  is  of  a  variety  of  colors.  It  was 
formerly  produced  by  allowing  the  lye  to  percolate 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  195 

through  the  boiling  mass,  though  lately  cheap  imita- 
tions have  been  produced  by  coloring  the  material. 

Soft  soap  differs  from  hard  in  having  potash  for 
its  base  instead  of  soda.  It  is  not  an  article  of  com- 
merce in  this  country,  though  it  is  used  by  house- 
wives. 

Various  kinds  of  powdered  soaps  appear  in  trade, 
and  bear  names  peculiar  to  themselves ;  e.  g.,  pearl- 
ine,  '76,  etc. 

Toilet  soap  is  produced  by  adding  various  perfumes 
to  the  best  qualities  of  soap.  Some  of  these  are 
entirely  or  semi-transparent.  Most  of  these  soaps 
are  produced  from  lard  oil. 

Among  the  soaps  which  are  used  for  their  medicinal 
properties  are  glycerine,  white  soda,  carbolic,  castile, 
etc. 

A.— VICTUALS. 

As  the  most  important  victuals  of  vertebrate  ani- 
mals the  flesh  of  the  Ruminantia  and  the  pork  of 
genus  Sus,  cheese,  and  several  fishes  may  be  men- 
tioned. 

MEAT. 

Fleischwaren,  Chair,  Kottrarer. 

Meat  is  the  aggregate  of  the  muscles,  fat,  and  other 
tissues  which  cover  the  frame-work  of  the  bones  in 
several  animals.  In  composition  it  is  mainly  albu- 
minous, but  contains  in  addition  a  large  number  of 
crystalline  bodies,  such  as  creatin,  xanthin,  hypo- 
xanthin,  carmin,  etc.  It  is  also  rich  in  phosphate  of 
potash. 

Preserved  Meats. — Pickled  and  smoked  meats  as 
well  as  the  sausages  deserve  especially  to  be  men- 
tioned. 


196  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Corned  beef  is  produced  largely  by  the  packing 
houses  of  Chicago,  Cincinnati,  Kansas  City,  and 
other  places.  Salted  and  smoked  pork  are  exported 
in  enormous  quantities  from  these  places  and  many 
other  points  in  the  United  States,  and  even  fresh 
meats  are  sent  all  over  the  world  by  the  Armour 
Packing  Company  and  other  concerns  in  their  mod- 
ern refrigerators. 

The  manufacture  of  beef  extracts,  butterine,  sau- 
sages, lard,  canned  meats  (in  small  tin  cans)  is 
assuming  immense  proportions  in  the  large  Western 
cities  of  the  United  States,  and  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  important  industries  of  the  country. 

The  manner  of  preserving  canned  meats  is  similar 
to  the  process  employed  in  preserving  canned  vege- 
tables. 

The  exportation  of  beef  products  for  1891  was  as 
follows : 

Beef  canned 109.585,727  Ibs. 

"    fresh 194,04-5,638   " 

"    salted 90,286,979  " 

Tallow 111,689,251   " 

Pork  products  for  the  same  year : 

Bacon 514,675,557  Ibs. 

Hams 84,410,108  " 

Lard 498,343,927  " 

See  article  on  canned  fruits. 

CHEESE. 

K8.se,   Fromage,   Ost. 

The  manner  of  preparing  cheese  is  too  commonly 
known  to  require  an  explanation,  and,  moreover,  it 
would  be  too  extensive  a  subject  to  treat  minutely, 
being  dependent  upon  too  many  minor  circumstan- 
ces; e.  g.,  climate,  country,  animals  and  other  con- 
ditions to  give  an  exhaustive  explanation  of  cheese 
making. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  197 

But  the  following  are  the  commonest  varieties  of 
trade : 

The  American  cheeses  have  the  following  names : 
Young  American,  Imitation  Swiss,  Brick  (full  cream), 
Cheddars  (made  of  skimmed  milk);  quantities  of 
this  variety  are  exported  from  New  York,  Ohio,  and 
Maine.  Cheese  of  an  exceptionally  fine  quality  is 
produced  in  Wisconsin,  which  state  has  received  the 
highest  awards  for  its  excellent  cheese  at  the  world's 
fairs. 

Edam  cheese  is  a  mottled  round  product  brought 
from  Holland ;  its  quality  is  superior  to  that  of  any 
other. 

Limburger  cheese  is  imported  from  Limburg,  Ger- 
many, and  several  other  places.  Its  odor  is  very 
strong  and  its  taste  sharp. 

Chester  cheese  is  a  very  excellent  article.  It  is 
imported  from  England. 

Swiss  cheese  is  produced  in  Switzerland,  which 
country  is  especially  noted  for  the  superior  quality 
and  general  excellence  of  its  cheese.  The  best  variety 
is  the  reputed  Emmenthaler.  It  also  produces  a 
cheese  manufactured  from  herbs,  which  bears  the 
name  of  green  cheese. 

Of  the  French  cheeses  the  brie  and  roquefort  are  the 
most  noted  varieties. 

The  manufacture  of  cheese  has  received  a  great 
impetus  by  the  growing  demand  for  this  dairy  prod- 
uct, and  manufactories  for  the  production  of  the 
article  have  sprung  up  all  over  the  principal  dairying 
states  of  our  country.  The  value  of  the  importation 
of  cheese  into  this  country  exceeds  $1,000,000  annu- 
ally. 

FISH. 

Fish  are  found  in  abundance  and  variety  in  nearly 
all  waters,  salt  or  fresh.  The  salt-water  fisheries  are 


198  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

commercially  of  much  greater  value,  and  the  impor- 
tant ones  are  few  in  number.  The  banks  of  the  coast 
of  New  Foundland  and  Nova  Scotia  are  the  most 
prolific  fishing  grounds.  The  fishing-banks  next  in 
productiveness  are  those  north  of  Norway  and  in  the 
vicinity  of  Iceland.  Fish  are  sent  to  market  fresh, 
pickled,  smoked,  or  dried.  The  following  varieties 
are  the  most  conspicuous : 

MACKEREL. 

Makrele,  Maquereau,  Makril. 

Mackerel  is  any  specie  of  fishes  belonging  to  genus 
Scomber,  and  several  related  genera.  They  have  a 
spindle  shaped  body,  and  are  very  active  oceanic 
fishes.  Most  of  them  are  highly  prized  for  food. 
The  common  mackerel,  which  inhabits  both  sides  of 
the  North  Atlantic,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
food  fishes.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  fish,  mottled  green 
and  blue.  The  common  mackerel  is  said  sometimes  to 
attain  a  length  of  20  inches,  but  is  usually  about  14 
or  16  inches  long,  and  about  2  Ibs.  in  weight.  After 
being  taken,  it  must  be  marketed  very  quickly,  as 
it  soon  ceases  to  be  fresh. 

The  Spanish  mackerel,  of  the  American  coast,  is 
covered  with  bright  yellow  circular  spots.  It 
attains  a  weight  of  four  or  five  Ibs.  and  is  less 
esteemed. 

Tunny,  or  horse  mackerel,  is  found  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  ot  Europe  and  America,  and  especially  in  the 
Mediterranean.  It  is  a  very  large  fish,  sometimes 
nine  feet  in  length,  and  weighing  1,000  Ibs.  or  even 
more.  Its  form  is  much  thicker  than  that  of  the 
common  mackerel.  Its  flesh  is  much  esteemed.  It 
also  yields  much  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  boiling 
the  head  and  the  belly. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  199 

CODFISH. 

Kabeljaa,  Cabillaud,  K*biljo. 

Cod,  a  fish  of  the  family  Gadidae,  is  almost  rival- 
ing the  herring  in  its  importance  to  mankind.  It 
sometimes  attains  a  weight  of  100  Ibs.  The  cod  is 
found  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  Atlantic  ocean, 
and  the  productiveness  of  the  great  banks  of  New 
Foundland  excels  all  others.  It  is  used  as  food  fresh, 
salted,  or  dry.  Great  quantities  are  carried  from 
New  Foundland  to  the  West  Indies. 

Cod  sounds  are  esteemed  as  a  delicacy,  and  are 
often  salted  and  sent  to  market.  They  are  also  used 
in  dry  state  as  isinglass. 

Ling  is  found  throughout  the  northern  seas.  It 
generally  attains  a  length  of  three  or  four  feet,  and 
has  been  known  to  weigh  seventy  Ibs.  The  color  is 
gray,  inclined  to  olive ;  the  belly  is  silvery.  Great 
numbers  are  caught  in  the  same  manner  as  cod ; 
they  are  split  from  head  to  tail,  cleaned,  salted  in 
brine,  washed,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  sent  to  the 
market  in  the  form  of  stock-fish,  or  haberdine. 

Stock-fish  is  the  name  of  several  other  dried  species 
of  codfish,  as  hake,  torsk,  whiting,  pollack,  etc. 

FLOUNDER. 

Plunder,  Plie,  Flundra. 

Flounder  is  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  Flatfish  family. 
To  this  genus  belongthe  plane,  dab,  etc.  Theflounder 
is  often  a  foot  or  more  in  length.  It  is  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  plane  by  a  row  of  small  tubercles 
on  each  of  the  lateral  sides.  The  color  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  depth  from  which '  the  fish  is  taken. 
Flounder  is  sometimes  smoked  and  thus  sent  to 
market. 


200  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

PIKE. 

Hicht,  Brochet.  Gudda. 

Pike  is  a  large  fresh-water  fish,  of  numerous 
species,  found  in  lakes,  ponds,  and  slow  rivers.  The 
pike  has  a  dusty  olive-brown  color  on  the  upper  parts, 
becoming  lighter  and  mottled  with  green  and  yellow 
on  the  sides.  The  flesh  of  the  pike  is  much  esteemed, 
but  that  of  pikes  of  moderate  size  is  reckoned 
superior  to  that  of  small  or  very  large  ones.  Large 
quantities  are  sometimes  caught  at  spawning 
season  and  dried. 

SALMON, 

Lacbs,  Suumon,  Lax. 

Salmon  is  one  of  the  several  species  of  fishes  of  the 
genus  Salmo  and  allied  genera.  The  common  salmon 
of  Northern  Europe  and  Eastern  North  America,  and 
the  California  salmon  or  quinnat  are  the  most  impor- 
tant species.  They  are  extensively  preserved  for 
food. 

The  salmon  ascend  rivers  and  penetrate  to  their 
head  streams  to  spawn.  They  are  remarkably  strong 
fishes,  and  will  even  leap  over  considerable  falls 
which  lie  in  the  way  of  their  progress.  The  common 
salmon  has  been  known  to  grow  to  the  weight  of 
seventy-five  Ibs.  Young  salmon  are  called  parr,  peal, 
smelt,  and  grils. 

TROUT. 

Forelle,  Truitc,  Fore//. 

The  trout  belongs  also  to  the  genus  Salmo,  and  is 
highly  esteemed  as  game  fish  and  for  the  quality  of 
its  flesh.  All  the  species  breed  in  fresh  water,  but 
after  spawning  many  of  them  descend  to  the  sea  if 
they  have  an  opportunity. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  201 

The  most  important  European  species  are  the 
river  or  brown  trout,  the  salmon  trout  and  the 
sewen.  The  most  important  American  species  are 
brook,  speckled,  or  red-spotted  trout  of  Northern 
United  States  and  Canada. 

HERRING. 

Haring,  Hareng,  Sill. 

Herring  is  one  of  the  various  species  of  fishes  of 
the  genus  Clupea ;  it  is  known  all  over  the  world. 
On  account  of  its  great  applicability  and  abundance, 
it  is  the  most  important  of  all  the  fishes.  The  her- 
ring is  believed  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  deep  water, 
from  which,  at  certain  seasons,  it  approaches  the 
shores,  probably  never  migrating  to  any  great  dis- 
tance. The  herring  seems  always  to  deposit  its 
spawn  in  comparatively  shallow  water,  and  certain 
localities  have  the  reputation  of  being  favorite 
spawning  grounds. 

The  herring  fishery  is  carried  on  all  the  year 
around,  but  the  largest  quantities  of  fish  are  caught 
in  the  months  of  August  and  September.  A  very 
large  proportion  of  the  herrings  are  pickled  or  cured 
by  means  of  salt ;  owing  to  the  facilities  for  speedy 
transportation  afforded  by  railways,  great  quanti- 
ties are  also  disposed  of  fresh.  At  some  places  the 
herrings  are,  after  being  slightly  salted,  made  into 
what  are  called  "bloaters"  by  means  of  smoking. 

ANCHOVY. 

Aacbove,  Anchois,  Ansjovis. 

Anchovy  is  a  small  fish,  about  three  inches  in 
length,  of  the  herring  family ;  it  is  much  esteemed 
for  its  rich  and  peculiar  flavor. 


202  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES, 

It  occurs  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  and  of  Green- 
land, and  abounds  in  the  Mediterranean  and  on  the 
Atlantic  coasts  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  France  where 
extensive  and  very  productive  fisheries  are  carried 
on,  particularly  in  the  months  of  May,  June,  and 
July,  when  the  shoals  of  anchovies  leave  the  deep 
seas,  and  approach  the  shores  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning.  They  are  salted  in  small  barrels,  and  are 
much  used  for  sauces,  etc.  Sardines  are  often  sold  as 
anchovies. 

SARDINES. 

Sardellcn,    Sardines,    Sardeller. 

Sardines  are  fishes  of  the  same  genus  with  the 
herring,  and  appear  in  shoals  on  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean.  They  are  exported  to  the  most  dis- 
tant parts  of  the  world ;  cured  with  olive  oil  in  tin 
boxes,  forming  a  much  esteemed  delicacy,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  a  most  wholesome  article  of  food.  The 
California  sardines  are  similar  to  the  European  ;  but 
the  American  sardines  of  the  Atlantic  coast  are 
mostly  the  young  of  the  common  herring  and  of  the 
menhaden. 

SHAD 

Is  any  one  of  the  several  species  of  food  fishes  of 
the  herring  family.  The  species  are  numerous;  the 
American  specie,  which  is  abundant  on  the  Atlantic 
coast  and  ascends  the  larger  rivers  in  the  spring  to- 
spawn,  is  an  important  market  fish.  The  European 
allice,  shad  or  loose,  and  the  twaite  shad,  are  less, 
important  species. 

LAMPREY. 

Neunaugen,   Lamproie,   Nejonogen, 

Lampreys  are  an  eel-like  marsipol  branch  of  the 
genus  Petromyzon,  and  allied  genera.  The  lam  preys 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  203 

have  a  round  sucking  mouth,  without  jaws,  but  set 
with  numerous  minute  teeth  on  the  palate.  There 
are  seven  small  bronchial  openings  on  each  side.  All 
lampreys  attach  themselves  to  other  fishes,  as  para- 
sites, by  means  of  the  sucker-like  mouth. 

The  common,  or  sea  lamprey,  of  America  and 
Burope  which  in  the  spring  ascends  rivers  to  spawn, 
is  considered  excellent  food  by  many,  and  is  sold  as 
market  fish  in  many  localities.  The  smaller  river 
lampreys  mostly  belong  to  the  genus  Lamptra,  and 
are  about  eight  to  twelve  inches  in  length.  They  are 
sent  on  the  market  either  smoked  or  pickled. 

All  kinds  offish  on  the  market  should  be  fresh,  of  a 
pure  and  fresh  odor  and  taste,  not  musty,  and  mod- 
erately salted.  Stockfish  should  not  be  spotty,  or  of 
a  red-brown  grayish  color.  Fishes  preserved  in 
brine,  as  herring,  etc.,  should  be  densely  packed. 
More  or  less  oily  fishes,  with  a  reddish  flesh  are 
always  old  and  of  a  poor  quality.  Poor  salt, 
employed  in  their  preservation,  hastens  decay.  The 
addition  of  a  small  portion  of  saltpeter  retards 
decomposition . 

CAVIAR. 

Caviar  is  the  salted  roes  of  the  common  sturgeon 
and  other  fishes  of  the  same  genus,  \vhich  are  com- 
mon in  the  lakes  and  on  the  coasts  of  North  America, 
Europe,  and  Asia.  Caviar  is  chiefly  prepared  in  Rus- 
sia, where  it  is  greatly  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  species  of  sturgeon,  from  the  roe  of  which  it  is 
chiefly  prepared,  inhabit  the  Caspian  and  Black  seas 
and  their  tributary  rivers.  Among  them  are  the 
Bielaga  (Accipenser  huso),  the  Osseter  (A.  Gulden- 
stadu),  the  Sherg  (A.  stellatus),  and  the  Sterlet  (A. 
ruthemus).  Astrakan  is  a  principal  seat  of  the  prep- 
aration of  caviar. 


204  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

On  the  market  we  distinguish  the  following  kinds 
of  caviar:  Black  caviar  (Siak-hawiar),  the  best, 
most  durable  and  high  prized;  May  caviar  (Mai- 
hawiar),  a  less  esteemed  and  cheaper  kind ;  Red  cav- 
iar (Kirmizi-hawiar),  the  poorest  and  cheapest  kind, 
which  is  not  only  prepared  from  the  roe  of  the  stur- 
geon, but  also  from  the  roe  of  the  salmon  and  other 
fishes.  A  kind  of  caviar,  called  Bottarge,  is  prepared 
in  Greece  and  Turkey. 

Good  caviar  consists  of  black,  translucent,  and  slip- 
pery grains,  of  the  size  of  the  coriander  seed ;  among 
the  grains  is  a  tough,  dark-green  pickle ;  it  should 
not  be  too  moist  or  dense,  but  loose,  of  a  pure,  not 
stringent  taste.  Caviar  should  be  kept  in  cool  places^ 
preferably  in  ice-boxes. 


/.-MUSK. 

Moscbas,  Bisam,  Muse,  AfysA. 

Musk  is  obtained  from  a  bag  behind  the  navel  of  the 
male  musk  deer,  which  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  elevated 
mountainous  regions  and  tablelands  of  Central  Asia. 
The  musk-bag  is  formed  by  an  infolding  of  a  portion 
of  the  skin  of  the  abdomen,  within  which  a  number 
of  membranes  are  contained,  and  between  these  mem- 
branes are  glands  in  which  the  musk  is  secreted. 
When  newly  taken  from  the  animal,  musk  is  soft  and! 
almost  resembles  an  ointment ;  it  is  reddish  brown, 
and  has  an  excessively  powerful  odor.  Very  little 
reaches  our  country  unadulterated.  Musk  is  usually 
imported  either  in  the  form  of  grain  musk,  that  is,, 
the  musk  which  has  been  collected  chiefly  from  the 
stones  upon  which  it  has  been  deposited  by  the  ani- 
mal, in  which  state  it  is  a  coarse  powder  of  a  dark 
brown  color;  or  in  the  pod,  that  is, in  the  musk  sac, 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  205 

which  is  cut  altogether  from  the  animal,  and  dried 
with  the  musk  inside.  Small  quantities  are  used  in 
medicine,  but  the  greater  portion  is  employed  by  the 
perfumers.  It  is  imported  in  small  boxes  or  caddies, 
often  covered  with  bright  colored  silk ;  each  contain- 
ing twenty-five  pounds. 

CASTORETJM. 

BibergeiJ,  Castoreum,  Ba.fverga.il. 

Castoreum  is  a  substance  secreted  in  two  glandular 
sacs,  closely  connected  with,  but  quite  distant  from, 
the  organs  of  reproduction  in  the  beaver,  and  at  one 
time  held  in  the  highest  repute  in  medicine,  although 
now  regarded  as  almost  inert,  and  chiefly  used  by 
perfumers.  The  castoreum  sacs  are  pear-shaped  and 
it  appears  in  commerce  in  the  sacs  themselves,  con- 
nected in  pairs  as  they  are  taken  from  the  animal. 
In  Hudson  Bay  commerce  ten  pair  of  them  are  equal 
in  value  to  one  beaver  skin.  Russian  castoreum  is 
of  much  higher  value  than  the  American. 

AMBERGRIS. 
Ambra,  Ambregris,  Ambra. 

Ambergris  is  a  substance  of  the  consistency  of 
wax,  found  floating  in  the  Indian  ocean  and  other 
parts  of  the  tropics,  and  also  a  morbid  secretion  in 
the  intestines  of  the  sperm  whale,  which  is  believed  to 
be  in  all  cases  its  prime  origin.  In  color  it  is  white, 
ash-gray,  or  black,  and  variegated  like  marble.  The 
floating  masses  are  sometimes  from  60  to  275  Ibs. 
in  weight.  It  is  wholly  volatilized  as  a  white  vapor 
at  212°  F. 

Much  ambergris  is  obtained  from  the  coasts  of  the 
Bahama  Islands;  it  is  also  brought  from  different 


206  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

parts  of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  coasts  of  Africa  and 
Brazil.    It  is  highly  valued  in  perfumery. 

GUANO 

Is  a  substance  found  in  great  abundance  on  some 
coasts  or  islands  frequented  by  sea  fowls,  and  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  their  excrement.  Guanos  are  divided 
according  to  their  composition  into  three  classes: 
1 .  Those  which  have  suffered  but  little  by  atmospheric 
action,  and  which  retain  nearly  the  whole  of  their 
original  constituents,  such  as  the  Angamos  and  Peru- 
vian guanos.  2.  Those  which  have  lost  a  consider- 
able portion  of  their  soluble  constituents,  such  as  the 
Ichaboe, Bolivian, and  Chilian  guanos.  3.  Those  which 
have  lost  nearly  all  their  ammonia,  and  contain  but 
little  more  than  the  earthy  phosphates  of  the  animal 
deposit.  Many  of  these  are  largely  contaminated 
with  sand. 

Test  of  Quality. — Pour  half  an  ounce  of  guano  into 
an  iron  ladle,  such  as  is  used  for  casting  bullets,  and 
place  it  upon  red-hot  coals,  until  nothing  but  a  white 
or  grayish  ash  is  left,  which  must  be  weighed  after 
cooling.  The  best  sorts  of  Peruvian  guano  do  not 
yield  more  than  30  or  33  per  cent  of  ash ;  white 
inferior  varieties,  such  as  Patagonian,  Chili,  or 
African  guano,  leave  a  residue  of  60  or  even  80  per 
cent;  and  those  which  are  intentionally  adulterated 
may  leave  a  still  larger  residue.  Genuine  guano  of 
all  kinds  leaves  a  white  or  gray  ash ;  and  a  yellow 
or  reddish  ash  indicates  the  adulteration  with 
earthy  matter,  sand,  etc. 

Besides  its  use  as  a  fertilizer,  it  is  also  used  in  pre- 
paring murexide,  a  product  of  uric  acid,  and  as  this 
exists  in  abundance,  and  in  a  very  free  state,  in 
guano,  that  material  has  been  found  to  be  one  of  the 
best  sources  from  which  to  obtain  it.  The  process  of 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  207 

i  V 

manufacturing  murexide  is  to  dissolve  uric  acid  in 
diluted  nitric  acid,  and  after  evaporating  for  some 
time  at  a  temperature  a  little  short  of  boiling,  while 
still  hot,  to  add  a  slight  excess  of  ammonia.  Two 
compounds  are  formed  by  this  process,  alloxan  and 
allolantin,  and  their  mutual  reaction  on  each  other 
results  in  the  formation  of  beautiful  minute,  green, 
metallic  lustered  crystals  of  murexide,  which,  in 
combination  with  some  of  the  compounds  of  lead 
and  mercury,  yield  most  brilliant  red  and  purple 
dyes.  Murexide  is  used  in  printing  both  cotton  and 
silk  goods,  under  the  name  of  "Roman-purple  style." 


/—DRUGS  FOR  DYEING. 

PRUSSIAN   BLUE. 

Berlinerblnu,  Blue  dc  Prusse,  PariscrhJatt. 

Prussian  blue  is  a  deep  blue  color,  which  is  so  fre- 
quently seen  on  cotton,  muslin,  and  woolen  handker- 
chiefs and  dresses.  It  may  be  prepared  in  several 
ways:  1.  By  mixing  solutions  of  yellow  prussiate 
of  potash  and  perchloride  of  iron,  which  yields  the 
variety  known  as  Paris  blue.  2.  By  adding  a  solu- 
tion of  the  red  prussiate  of  potash  (ferrocyanide  of 
potassium)  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  and 
this  mode  of  preparation  gives  Turnbull's  blue.  The 
Prussian  blue  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  mixing 
vessels  and  may  be  collected  and  dried  by  exposure 
to  the  air,  when  it  turns  into  a  blue  powder.  If  heat 
be  applied  in  drying,  the  cakes,  when  cut,  exhibit  a 
luster  and  hue  like  copper.  When  alum  has  been 
used  in  its  manufacture,  the  product  has  a  dull 
earthy  fracture.  It  is  employed  by  washerwomen 
under  the  name  of  blue,  for  neutralizing  the  yellow 
tint  of  cotton  and  linen  cloths ;  by  paper  makers,  to 


208  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

color  paper ;  and  is  very  largely  employed  as  a  pig- 
ment in  calico  printing  and  dyeing. 

A  lighter  Prussian  blue,  called  mineral  blue,  is 
yielded  when  the  Prussian  blue  is  precipitated  along 
with  a  solution  of  zinc,  magnesia,  moist  carbonate 
of  zinc  or  magnesia  added  during  the  precipitation 
of  the  color.  In  the  formation  of  royal  blue,  a  solu- 
tion of  tin  is  added,  and  steam  blue  is  produced  by 
the  addition  of  tartaric  acid  and  yellow  prussiate  of 
potash.  The  impurities  liable  to  be  present  in  Prus- 
sian blue  are  starch,  chalk  and  stucco,  either  of 
which  necessarily  decreases  the  intensity  of  the  blue 
color,  and  the  utility  of  the  substance. 

FERROCYANIDE. 

Blutla.ugeusa.lz,  Ferrocyanate  de  potasse,  Blodlutsalt. 

Potassium  ferrocyanide  is  a  yellow  prussiate  of 
potash.  It  is  prepared  by  heating  to  redness,  in  a 
covered  iron  pot,  a  mixture  of  three  parts  (by 
weight)  of  nitrogenized  matter,  such  as  the  dried 
blood,  hoofe,  parings  of  hides,  scrapings  of  horn,  or 
the  flesh  of  deceased  horses,  three  parts  of  carbonate 
of  potash,  and  one  part  of  iron  filings.  The  carbon, 
nitrogen  and  iron  combine  together,  and  form  ferro- 
cyanogen,  which,  at  the  same  time,  unites  with  the 
potassium,  and  produces  ferrocyanide  of  potassium, 
or  yellow  prussiate  of  potash.  The  compound  which 
is  obtained  from  the  heated  iron  vessel  is  impure,  but 
by  repeated  solution  in  hot  water,  and  recrystalli- 
zation  on  cooling,  the  salt  is  obtained  pure  in  fine, 
large  tubular  crystals  of  lemon-yellow  color. 

The  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  is  largely  used  in  dye- 
ing and  calico  printing  and  in  the  production  of  many 
shades  of  Prussian  blue ;  and  when  it  is  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  subjected  to  heat,  hydrocyanic  or 
prussia  acid  is  distilled  from  the  mixture. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  209 

The  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  is  characterized  by 
giving  no  indication  of  the  presence  of  iron  in  its 
residue  on  the  application  of  any  of  the  tests  of  iron. 
It  gives  a  light  blue  precipitate  on  the  addition  of  a 
solution  of  proto-sulphate  of  iron  ;  a  dark  blue  pre- 
cipitate \vith  perchloride  of  iron ;  and  a  brown  precipi- 
tate with  sulphate  of  copper;  and  a  white  precipitate 
with  acetate  of  lead. 

BONEBLACK,     OR    ANIMAL    CHARCOAL. 

Beinscli \vartz,  Charbon  animal,  Bensvarta. 

Boneblack  is  prepared  irom  bones  by  heating  them 
in  closed  retorts  until  they  undergo  the  process  of 
destructive  distillation,  when  combustible  gases  and 
water,  together  with  the  vapors  of  several  salts  of 
ammonia,  and  oils  are  given  oft',  and  boneblack  is  left 
in  the  retort.  It  is  generally  reduced  to  coarse  grains 
and  is  extensively  used  in  the  art  of  decolorizing 
liquids,  such  as  syrup  of  sugar  and  solutions  of  argol 
(impure  cream  of  tartar)  and  of  the  alkaloids,  as 
also  in  filters,  for  separating  chemical  impurities 
from  \vater.  Boneblack  has  likewise  great  power 
for  absorbing  odors,  especially  those  of  a  disagree- 
able nature,  and  can  thus  be  employed  to  deodorize 
apartments,  clothing,  etc.,  or  wherever  animal  mat- 
ter may  be  passing  into  a  state  of  active  putrefac- 
tion. 

Oil  of  hartshorn,  volatile  salt  of  hartshorn,  and 
spirits  of  hartshorn  were  formerly  products  of  the 
manufacture  of  boneblack,  but  they  are  now  replaced 
by  simpler  preparations  of  the  active  ingredients  of 
these  substances,  namely,  ammonia  and  carbonate  of 
ammonia. 

14 


CHAPTER  II. 
Products  from  Mollusca. 

Molluscas  have  an  unsegmented  bilateral  body 
with  most  of  the  organs  and  parts  paired,  but  not 
repeated  longitudinally.  Most  of  them  develop  a 
mantle  which  encloses  either  a  bronchial  or  pulmo- 
nary cavity.  They  are  generally  more  or  less  covered 
or  protected  by  a  calcareous  shell,  which  may  be 
univalve,  bivalve,  or  multivalve. 

These  animals  furnish  very  few  articles  of  com- 
merce, although  some  of  them  are  costlv  and  highly 
esteemed;  ot  most  frequent  occurrence  are  the  follow- 
ing: 

SEPIA. 

Sepia,  Sepia  <Je  Rome,  Sepia. 

Sepia  is  pigment  prepared  from  the  ink,  or  black 
secretion  of  the  cuttlefish.  The  ink  is  found  in  a  bag, 
opening  into  the  siphon,  from  which,  when  pursued 
the  cuttlefish  throws  out  the  ink  which  clouds  the 
water,  enabling  it  to  escape  observation.  Treated 
with  caustic  potash,  it  has  a  rich  brown  color,  and 
this  mixed  with  red  forms  Roman  sepia.  It  is 
usually  prepared  in  Italy. 

Of  all  its  species  Sepia  ofncinalis  yields  it  most  abun- 
dantly, being  found  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  black 
kind,  called  India  ink,  is  prepared  in  China,  Japan, 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  211 

and  India,  and  forms  the  common  writing  ink  of 
those  countries. 

The  bones  or  shells  of  cuttlefishes  are  frequently 
cast  upon  the  shore,  and  are  used  for  making  pounce, 
tooth  powder,  etc.,  for  forming  bones  for  small  sil- 
ver castings,  for  polishing,  and  for  other  purposes 
in  the  mechanical  arts. 

Of  Helicidae  family,  snails  of  different  species,  are 
an  article  of  exportation  from  England. 

They  are  packed  in  old  casks,  in  which  they  are 
best  conveyed,  fixing  themselves  one  upon  another 
to  the  casks,  and  leaving  a  vacant  space  in  the  center. 
Some  of  the  tropical  species  of  Helix  are  very  large, 
and  some  have  beautiful  shells,  which  constitute 
articles  for  museums  and  ornaments. 

OYSTERS. 

Austern,  Huitres,  Ostron. 

Oysters  are  any  marine  bivalve  mollusc  of  the 
genus  Ostrea.  They  are  usually  found  adhering  to 
rocks  or  other  fixed  objects  in  shallow  water  along 
the  sea  coasts,  or  in  brackish  water  in  the  mouths 
of  rivers.  Young  oysters  readily  attach  themselves 
to  the  shells  of  the  old  ones,  and  thus,  in  favorable 
circumstances,  oyster  banks  increase  rapidly,  so  as 
to  fill  shallow  parts  of  the  sea.  This  is  very  remark- 
ably the  case  on  the  shores  of  Maryland  and  some 
other  parts  of  North  America. 

Various  methods  are  adopted  of  preparing  the 
artificial  oyster  bed,  by  providing  suitable  objects 
for  the  oysters  to  attach  themselves  to.  Ovsters 
raised  in  artificial  beds  are  called  "natives,"  and  are 
considered  very  superior  to  those  which  are  dredged 
from  the  natural  beds. 

Oysters  are  caught  in  fall  or  winter  and  are  sent  to 
the  market  either  fresh,  firmly  packed  in  wooden 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

vessels,  containing  200,  or  freed  from  the  shell  and 
preserved  with  their  own  juice  with  salt  and 
pepper. 

Of  the  culinary  uses  of  oysters,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  say  anything. 

Good  oysters  are  distinguished  by  their  tight  shell ; 
open  shells  and  a  disagreeable  odor  are  signs  of 
decay. 

Oysters  come  into  trade  largely  in  tin  cans  and 
are  classified  as  standard,  select,  etc.  Baltimore  is 
most  extensively  engaged  in  packing  and  shipping 
oysters. 

PEARLS. 

Per/en,  Perles,  Per/or. 

Pearls  are  shelly  secretions,  usually  rounded,  and 
having  a  brilliant  luster,  with  varying  tints,  found 
in  the  mantle,  or  between  the  mantle  and  shell  of 
certain  bivalve  molluscs,  especially  in  the  pearl 
oyster  and  river  mussels,  and  sometimes  in  certain 
univalves.  They  are  usually  due  to  a  secretion  of 
shelly  substances  around  some  irritating  foreign 
particle.  Their  substance  is  the  same  as  macre,  or 
mother-of-pearl.  Pearls  which  are  round,  or  nearly 
round,  and  of  fine  luster,  are  highly  esteemed  as 
jewels,  and  compare  in  value  with  the  precious 
stones. 

The  most  famous  pearls  are  those  from  the  east; 
the  coast  of  Ceylon  has  from  the  earliest  times  been 
the  chief  locality  for  pearl  fishing.  They  are,  how- 
ever, obtained  now  of  nearly  the  same  quality  in  other 
parts  of  the  world,  as  Panama  in  South  America; 
St.  Marzarita  in  the  West  Indies,  the  Caromandel 
coast,  the  shores  of  the  Sooloo  Islands,  the  Bahrein 
Islands,  etc. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE*  OF   WARES.  213 

Pearls  vary  much  in  size ;  those  as  large  as  a  pea, 
and  of  a  good  color  and  form,  are  the  best,  except 
unusually  large  specimens,  which  rarely  occur. 

False  pearls  are  very  admirable  imitations,  made 
by  blowing  very  thin  beads,  or  bulbs  of  glass,  and 
pouring  into  them  a  mixture  of  liquid  ammonia,  and 
the  white  matter  from  the  scales  of  the  bleak  and 
sometimes  of  the  roach  and  dace.  The  better  kinds  have 
melted  white  wax  poured  over  them,  which  renders 
them  much  more  durable.  Roman  pearls  differ  from 
other  artificial  pearls,  on  account  of  their  coating  of 
pearly  matter  on  the  outside,  to  which  it  is  attached 
by  an  adhesive  substance. 

MOTHER-OF-PEARLS. 
Perlemutter,  Nacre  de  perle,  Perlemor. 

Mother-of-pearl  is  the  shells  of  the  large  bivalve 
mollusc,  Meleagrina  margaritifera,  which  also  pro- 
duces  the  precious  pearls.  These  shells  are  collected 
in  vast  numbers  in  the  tropical  seas.  Those  from 
Panama  are  small  and  thick,  and  are  known  in  com- 
merce as  "  bullock "  shells ;  those  from  Manilla  are 
finest  in  quality,  often  as  much  as  a  foot  in  diameter, 
round  and  flat.  There  are  two  varieties,  the  white 
or  silver  lipped  and  the  black  lipped. 

Although  large  quantities  of  these  shells  are  con- 
sumed in  inlaying  fancy  woodworks,  papier-mache, 
and  in  making  knife-handles  and  other  small  orna- 
mental objects,  by  far  the  greater  portion  is  required 
for  making  buttons.* 

•The  high  protective  tariff  (McKinley  tariff)  which  has  been  placed 
upon  the  imported  pearl  buttons  has  been  instrumental  in  developing  an 
industry  which  is  assuming  large  proportions  in  this  country.  Numer- 
ous manufactories  for  the  manufacture  of  pearl  buttons  have  sprung  up 
and  are  thriving  in  the  United  States  and  consequently  the  industry  has 
received  a  severe  set-back  in  Germany,  from  which  country  nearly  all  the 
pearl  buttons  on  our  market  were  imported.  Mother  of-pearl  which 
was  formerly  imported  from  the  South  Sea  Islands  has  given  place  to  the 
shells  found  in  our  streams. 


CHAPTER  III. 
a.— Products  from  Articulates. 

Articulates  include  these  invertebrates  having  a 
body  composed  of  a  series  of  ring-like  segments.  The 
most  important  of  them  are  as  follows : 

a.— PRODUCTS  FROM  INSECTS. 

SILK. 

Seide,  Soie,  Silkc. 

Silk  is  the  fine  soft  thread  produced  by  the  silk- 
worm, Bomby  mori,  a  native  of  China,  where  the 
silkworm  has  been  carefully  reared  for  centuries. 
This  culture  has  been  extended  into  Italy  Japan, India, 
France,  Russia,  and  elsewhere;  but  half  the  world's 
supply  of  silk  comes  from  China,  where  the  industry 
is  more  skillfully  carried  on,  and  the  other  countries 
named  depend  largely  upon  China  for  the  larvae  of 
the  worm. 

The  silkworm  feeds  on  the  leaves  of  the  white  mul- 
berry, Morus  alba,  but  it  will  also  feed  on  the  leaves 
of  some  other  plants,  as  the  black  mulberry  and  the 
lettuce.  When  so  fed,  however,  it  produces  silk  of 
inferior  quality. 

The  perfect  insect  is  about  an  inch  in  length,  and 
generally  dies  very  soon  after  it  has  laid  its  eggs. 
The  eggs  are  laid  at  the  end  of  the  summer,  and  are 

814 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  215 

hatched  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  summer.  Dur- 
ing the  growth  of  the  caterpillar  it  changes  its  skin 
four  or  five  times.  The  silk  producing  organs  are 
two  large  glands  containing  a  viscid  substance 
which  extends  along  a  great  part  of  the  body,  and 
terminates  in  two  spinnerets  in  its  mouth.  The 
glands  become  very  large  when  the  change  to  the 
chrysalis  or  pupa  state  is  about  to  take  place.  When 
about  to  spin  its  cocoon,  the  silkworm  ceases  to  eat, 
and  first  produces  the  loose,  rough  fiber  of  its' 
interior.  Each  fiber  of  silk  of  the  cocoon,  when 
examined  by  microscope,  is  seen  to  be  double,  being 
equally  derived  from  the  two  silk-producing  organs 
of  the  caterpillar.  A  single  fiber  often  exceeds  1,100 
feet  in  length.  The  duration  of  the  silkworm's  life  in 
the  caterpillar  state  is  about  eight  weeks.  About 
eight  days  are  occupied  in  the  spinning  of  the  coco  on; 
after  which  about  two  or  three  weeks  elapse  before 
the  cocoon  bursts  and  the  perfect  insect  comes  forth. 
The  natural  bursting  of  the  cocoon  is,  however, 
injurious  to  the  silk,  and  the  silk-worm  producer  pre- 
vents it  by  throwing  all  the  cocoons  into  boiling 
water,  except  those  which  he  intends  to  keep  for  the 
maintenance  and  increase  of  his  stock.  The  hot 
water  softens  and  dissolves  the  natural  gum  which 
coats  the  silk,  and  makes  the  various  coils  of  silk 
adhere  together  in  the  cocoon. 

As  the  threads  are  extremely  fine,  several  threads 
are  taken  together  to  be  united  to  a  raw  silk  thread, 
the  thickness  of  which  coincides  with  the  purpose  for 
•which  the  silk  may  be  used.  The  raw  silk,  unwound 
from  the  reel,  is  coated  with  natural  gum,  which 
gives  it  a  yellow  color ;  some  kinds  ,of  silk  are  white 
in  their  raw  state ;  the  Chinese  is  of  light  greenish 
tint.  The  coating,  which  renders  the  silk  rough  and 
difficult  to  dye,  is  unglued  by  immersing  it  in  a  boil- 


216  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

ing  mixture  of  water  and  soap,  whereby  the  threads 
retain  their  perfect  beauty  and  luster.  By  this  pro- 
cess the  silk  loses  considerably  in  weight,  and  for  this 
reason  the  unglued  silk  is  the  higher  priced.  The 
applications  "tout  cuit,"  perfectly  boiled,  denote  dif- 
ferent degrees  to  which  the  silk  is  deglutinated. 

Raw  silk  is  employed  only  in  a  very  few  articles ; 
the  greater  portion  is  spun  and  twisted,  which  in 
later  times  is  generally  performed  by  machinery. 
Most  silks,  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  silk 
stuffs,  is  twisted  from  two  threads  of  raw  silk.  It  is 
divided  into  two  kinds:  Orgazine  and  tram. 
Orgazine  is  a  kind  of  double  thrown  silk  of  a  very 
fine  texture,  that  is,  silk  twisted  like  rope  with  differ- 
ent strands,  so  as  to  increase  its  strength.  Tram  is 
a  thread  formed  of  two  or  more  fibers  twisted 
together,  used  especially  for  the  weft,  or  cross 
threads,  of  the  best  quality  of  velvets  and  silk  goods. 
The  fineness  of  these  kinds  of  silk  is  estimated 
according  to  their  weight.  The  reeled  filaments  of 
silk  twisting  without  doubling,  to  give  them  firm- 
ness, is  called  single. 

For  the  control  of  the  sale  of  silk,  especially  that 
of  orgazine,  tram,  and  raw  silk,  establishments, 
which  determine  the  weight  of  silk  sold,  are  erected 
in  all  places  from  which  silk,  to  any  extent,  is  exported. 
As  the  silk  attracts  moisture,  and  the  weight  thereby 
increases,  it  is  important  that  it  be  kept  in  a  dry  place. 
The  before-mentioned  establishment  make  tests  by 
drying  two  or  three  samples  of  silk,  which  are  care- 
fully weighed  before  and  after  the  drying.  The  weight 
of  perfectly  dry  silk  and  11  per  cent  added  as  an 
allowance  for  moisture  gives  the  legal,  normal 
•weight  of  silk. 

Silk  is,  to  a  great  extent,  produced  in  China,  Japan, 
and  India,  and  the  goods  are  mostly  exported ;  but 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  217 

the  exports  of  raw  silk  from  these  countries  is  much 
more  important.  France  is  the  leading  silk  manu- 
facturing country  of  Europe.  Lyons  is  the  center  of 
the  industry  and  the  chief  silk-market  of  the  \vorld. 
Germany  stands  second  in  this  manufacture  in 
Europe,  and  Crefeld  is  its  most  important  center. 
The  chief  Lyons  product  is  dress-goods,  while  that  of 
Crefeld  is  silk  velvet.  The  United  States  ranks  third 
as  a  silk-manufacturing  nation,  and  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  are  the  leading  states  in  this  industry ; 
and  the  product  is  composed  mainly  of  thread,  rib- 
bons, and  handkerchiefs.  In  1888  raw  silk  was  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  to  the  amount  of 
$2,000,000,  of  which  more  than  half  came  from 
Japan. 

SILKS, 

Scidenstofie,  Safeties,  Sidentyger. 

As  silks,  are  classed  firstly,  all  pure  silk-stuffs,  and 
secondly  all  mixed  stuffs,  consisting  partly  of  silk, 
partly  of  wool,  cotton,  or  linen. 

The  most  important  are,  of  course,  pure  silk  cloths, 
of  which  those  manufactured  of  S.  C.  "tout  cuit" 
silk  are  the  most  attractive  for  beauty  and  luster. 
Of  the  remaining  kinds  the  warp  is  only  "tout  cuit " 
but  the  woof  is  "my  cuit,"  that  is,  silk  which  has 
been  so  deglomerated  as  to  become  soft  and  permit 
dyeing.  In  poor  qualities,  the  warp  consists  of  "my 
cuit, "and in  the  poorest  also  of  "tout  souple,"  which 
furnishes  a  dim  and  dusky  stuff. 

The  silk  which  is  intended  for  the  woof  of  black 
stuffs  is  subjected  to  a  separate  treatment ;  at  first  it 
is  partially  immersed  in  boiling  \vater,  but  fully  sat- 
urated with  dye,  whereby  the  threads  swell  and  con- 
siderably increases  its  weight.  The  stuff  thereby 
obtains  a  seemingly  greater  strength  than  it  really 


218  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

possesses;  its  color  also  becomes  unstaple.  This 
texture  is  called  gros,  and  the  threads,  under  the 
microscope,  appear  to  be  covered  \vith  dye  loosely 
adhering  in  the  form  of  more  or  less  ruggedness ;  the 
pure  silk  threads,  on  the  contrary,  are  smooth  and 
cylindrical. 

Coarse  silk  is  used  in  very  few  fabrics ;  generally 
raw  silk,  especially  in  gauze  fabrics,  on  account  of  its 
stiffness,  is  more  serviceable.  According  to  the  mode 
of  manufacture,  silk  stuffs  are  divided  into  the  fol- 
lowing kinds : 

1.  Smooth,  or  linen  woven  stuffs.  Among  these  are 
all  thinner  fabrics,  used  for  linings,  etc.,  as  Florence, 
double  Florence,  and  Marceline;  moreover  taffety, 
that  is,  fine,  smooth  stuff  of  silk,  usually  having  a 
wavy  luster  called  \vatered,  as  gr©s  de  Naples,  lus- 
trings, lutestring,  etc.;  and  finally  such  stuffs  which 
are  manufactured  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  woof 
of  which  is  stronger  and  consists  of  more  threads, 
forming  an  embossment ;  such  stuffs  are :  Gros  grains, 
gros  de  Berlin,  gros  de  Tours,  etc.  In  gros  d'  Alger, 
rep  silks,  etc. , the  thicker  woof  alternates  with  thinner  ; 
even  foulard,  in  which  the  warp  is  a  fine  raw  silk,  but 
the  woof  coarse  silk,  belongs  to  smooth  silk  stuffs. 
Adulterations  with  cotton,  etc.,  rarely  occur  in  these 
stuffs ;  as  the  most  important  of  these,  we  may  men- 
tion popelin.  The  most  beautiful  is  obtained  from 
England. 

According  to  color  these  stuffs  are  divided  as  fol- 
lows :  single-colored  or  changing  ( woven  in  such  a 
way  as  to  produce  an  effect  of  variegation,  of 
changeable  tints,  or  of  being  figured),  as  short  silks; 
imprinted  (jaspe,  chime,  imprime),  in  the  first  the 
warp,  in  the  latter  the  colored  stuff  is  imprinted ; 
striped  (raye  quadrille,  ecassais)  when  variegated, 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  219 

wool  and  warp  threads  are  woven  in  certain  direc- 
tions.   . 

2.  Gauze  stuffs,   which    in    some    particulars    are 
similar  to  the  preceding,  but  differ  therefrom  in  the 
fact  that  the  woof  and  warp  threads  do  not  form  a 
close,  but  a  loose,  more  or  less  transparent  texture, 
as  gaze  iris,  gaze  de  Paris,  crape ;   somewhat  differ- 
ent in  weaving  are  grenadine,  gaze  a  blutean,  gaze 
donna  Maria,  etc.     Of  the  half-gauze-like  silk  stuffs, 
barege  is  the  most  conspicuous ;     a  similar  weft  to 
grenadine,  but  the  woof  is  of  fine  woolen  yarn. 

3.  Atlas    silk    stuffs.      At    first    (serge,  levantine, 
satin  turc),  the  warp  lying  in  a  certain  regular  order 
is  obliquely  formed ;  at  the  latter  (satins)  the  threads 
are  put  closer  together  and  form  a  thick  texture  and 
overshot  woof,  which  has  a  glossy  surface.  As  in  these 
textures  the  warp  forms  the  most  important  sur- 
face, other  articles  can  be  easily  employed  for  the  woof 
of  these  textures,  especially  the  true  atlas ;  in  order 
to  obtain  cheap  prices,  cotton  woof  is  therefore  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  atlas. 

4-.  Fashioned  stuffs  are  simple  fabrics,  manufac- 
tured by  S.  C.  foot  power  machines.  Armure  belongs 
to  this  kind;  moreover,  all  kinds,  (cannelees,  satinees, 
etc.)  the  ground  of  which  is  smooth  and  ribbed  on  the 
surface.  With  these  textures,  cotton  and  wool  are 
generally  mixed. 

5.  Jacquard  stuffs  are  fashioned  stuffs  of  more 
intricate  fabrication,  and  manufactured  to  the  high- 
est perfection  with  Jacquard  looms,  which  is  a 
device  for  weaving  figured  goods,  consisting  of  a 
mechanism  controlled  by  a  chain  of  variously  per- 
forated cards,  which  causes  the  warp  threads  to  be 
lifted  in  the  proper  succession  for  producing  the 
required  figure  (damas,  broderies,  lances,  broches, 
pompadour).  The  difference  and  number  of  Jac- 


220  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

quard  stuffs  are  great,  and  also  their  names  are  vari- 
ous. Damask,  made  for  furniture  covering  and 
drapery,  etc.,  consists  partly  of  silk  and  partly  wool  or 
linen,  woven  so  that  a  pattern  is  produced  by  the  differ- 
ent directions  of  the  thread,  without  contrast  of  the 
color. 

6.  Velvety  stuffs  which  are  divided  into  velours 
and  plush. 

The  quality  of  the  velvet  is  very  different ;  thickest 
manufactured  of  a  coarse  warp,  are  Genoese ;  the  best 
and  finest  are  those  from  Lyons ;  the  most  used  are 
the  German  (Crefeld),  the  ground  of  which,  in  the 
lighter  kinds,  consists  of  cotton;  these  kinds  are 
called  trimmed,  because  the  texture  consists  of  simple 
threads,  and  is  cut  on  the  surface  so  as  to  form  a 
texture  of  open,  perpendicular  threads.  Untrimmed 
stuffs  (Velvous  frise)  are  such  textures,  the  threads 
of  which  are  not  cut  on  the  surface. 

Plush  is  textile  fabric  with  a  nap  or  shag  on  one 
side,  longer,  and  softer  than  the  nap  of  velvet.  A 
special  kind,  called  mockado  or  mock  velvet,  is  made 
in  imitation  of  velvet,  and  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  hats. 

7.  Knit  stuffs  as  gloves,  stockings,  etc.,  which  are 
manufactured  with  certain  machines,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  which  is  similar  to  that  of  wool  and  cot- 
ton. 

8.  Reticular  textures,  made  by  bobinet  machines, 
are  fabrics  of  fine  threads  of  silk,  linen,  or  cotton,  etc., 
often  ornamented  with  figures ;  a  delicate  tissue  of 
thread,  much  worn  as  an  embroidery  on  dresses. 
The  finest  laces  are  embroidered  with    a  needle  by 
hand.    The  classification  of  silk  stuffs  according  to 
their  different  fabrics  includes  silk  ribbons,  which  are 
designated  similarly  to  the  cloths. 

The  manufactured  textures  are  sent  on  the  market 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WAKES.  221 

either  unchanged,  or  subjected  to  a  precedent  prepa- 
ration. 

The  smooth  textures  are  mostly  pressed ;  some  are 
given  a  watered  appearance  in  the  process  of  calen- 
dering (moire).  All  lighter  kinds  of  atlas  are,  on  the 
wrong  side,  dressed  with  gumwater  and  rapidly 
dried.  Gauzes  and  reticular  textures  also  require, 
when  they  possess  but  little  stiffness,  a  stronger 
dressing. 

Almost  all  countries  are  engaged  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  silk.  France  is  the  leading  silk-manufacturing 
country  of  Europe.  Lyons  is  the  chief  silk  market 
of  the  world ;  Avignon,  Tous,  Nimes  and  Paris  rank 
next.  The  most  important  silk  factories  of  England 
are  London,  Manchester,  Macclesfield;  for  ribbon, 
Coventry  and  Cangleton. 

These  are  mostly  manufactured  from  Chinese  silk 
and  are  therefore  sold  cheap,  but  are  inferior  in 
quality  to  the  French  product.  In  Germany,  Crefeld 
is  the  most  important  center. 

In  the  United  States,  New  York  and  New  Jersey 
are  the  leading  states  in  this  industry.  The  product 
is  mainly  sewing  silk,  ribbons  and  handkerchiefs, 
though  the  manufacture  of  dress  goods  is  rapidly 
increasing.  The  importation  of  manufactured  silk 
into  the  United  States  in  1888  was  about 
$33,000,000. 

WAX. 

Wachs,  Cire,  Vax. 

Wax  is  a  fatty,  solid  substance,  produced  by  bees, 
and  employed  by  them  in  the  construction  of  their 
combs;  usually  called  beeswax.  It  is  obtained  by 
expressing  the  honey  and  fusing  the  residue  in  boiling 
water.  In  this  state  it  is  of  a  yellow  color.  It  may 
be  bleached,  so  as  to  form  white  wax,  by  being 


222  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WAKES. 

exposed  in  thin  slices  to  the  action  of  solar  light,  or 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid. 

It  appears  that  wax  consists  of  three  different 
substances,  myricin,  cerin,  and  cerolein,  which  are 
separable  from  one  another  by  means  of  alcohol. 
Myricin,  which  is  insoluble  in  water,  constitutes 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  bulk  of  the  ordinary 
wax.  Cerin  or  ceratic  acid,  which  dissolves  in  boil- 
ing alcohol,  but  separates  on  cooling,  varies  in  quan- 
tity in  different  specimens.  Cerolein,  the  substance 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  is  a  grassy  body,  constituting 
4  or  5  per  cent,  of"  an  ordinary  wax. 

Yellow  wax  should  be  firm,  have  an  agreeable, 
honey-like  odor,  not  unctuous  to  the  touch,  not  melt 
under  140°,  yield  nothing  to  cold  rectified  spirit,  but 
be  entirely  insoluble  in  oil  of  turpentine.  White  wax 
should  be  hard,  nearly  white,  translucent ;  not 
unctuous  to  the  touch,  not  melt  under  150°.  The 
iodine  test  is  used  because  wax  is  often  adulterated 
with  starch. 

The  commercial  value  of  beeswax  is  very  great ; 
and  if  it  were  possible  to  ascertain  the  total  of  the 
quantity,  it  would  cause  great  surprise  at  the 
amount  of  valuable  material  derived  from  a  source 
so  apparently  insufficient.  Its  chief  use  is  for  can- 
dles, modeling,  medicinal  cerates  or  ointments, 
besides  many  minor  purposes.  So  large  is  the  quan- 
tity consumed  in  the  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  and 
Roman  churches  that  Russia  alone  consumes  more 
than  20,000  tons  annually,  and  the  various  Catholic 
countries  probably  ten  times  as  much. 

COCHINEAL. 

Cochenille,  Cochenille,  Cochenille. 

Cochineal  is  a  valuable  dyestuff  consisting  of  the 
dried  bodies  of  the  females  of  the  Coccus  cacti,  an 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  223 

insect  native  in  Mexico,  Central  America,  etc.,  and 
found  on  several  species  of  cactus,  especially  Opuntia 
cochinellifera.  The  cultivation  of  this  insect  was 
carried  on  by  the  Mexicans  long  before  the  country 
•was  known  to  Europeans.  It  is  now  also  carried  on 
in  some  parts  of  the  West  Indies,  Teneriffe,  Algiers, 
Spain,  etc. 

The  cochineal  is  a  small  creature,  a  pound  of  coch- 
ineal being  calculated  to  contain  70,000  in  a  dried 
state.  The  male  is  of  a  deep  red  color,  and  has 
white  wings.  The  female,  \vhich  is  wingless,  is  of  a 
deep  brown  color,  covered  with  a  white  powder ;  flat 
beneath,  convex  above. 

The  gathering  of  the  cochineal  is  very  tedious,  and 
is  accomplished  by  brushing  the  branches  with  the 
tail  of  a  squirrel  or  other  animal.  The  insects  are 
killed  by  boiling  water,  by  heating  them  in  ovens,  or 
by  exposure  to  the  heat  of  the  sun.  They  must  be 
speedily  killed  to  prevent  them  from  laying  their 
eggs,  which  diminishes  their  value.  When  killed  and 
dried,  they  may  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  with- 
out injury.  The  different  appearances  presented  by 
the  cochineal  brought  to  the  market,  are  ascribed  to 
the  different  modes  of  killing  the  insect.  Those  killed 
by  heating  them  in  ovens  obtain  an  ash-gray  color  and 
are  termed  "Grana  jaspeada;  "  those  killed  by  boil- 
ing are  reddish  and  are  termed  "Grana  regeneritia;  " 
those  killed  by  solar  heat  are  dark  and  termed 
"Grana  negro."  When  dried  they  resemble  small, 
rough  berries  or  seeds,  of  a  brown  or  purple  color. 

The  various  kinds  of  cochineal  in  trade  are  named 
after  the  country  in  which  they  are  produced. 

1.  Mexican,  of  which  several  kinds  occur  and  of 
different  colors ;  besides  the  three  kinds  already  men- 
tioned, we  distinguish  also:  Lacatilla;  of  a  dark, 
red-brown,  silvery  color,  is  lighter  and  generally 


224  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

cheaper  than  Grana  fina,  which  was  formerly  pre- 
ferred, Grana  fin  a,  heavier  than  lacatilla.isof  a  silver 
gray  color. 

2.  Honduras,  mestique  cochineal  is  produced  in 
the  United  States,  but  especially  in  Honduras.    It  is 
of  a  silvery  color  and  rich  in  dyestuffs.    In  later  years 
it  has  been  very  extensively  introduced  on  the  market, 
and  is  in  quality  similar  tolacatilla,  although  cheaper 
than  this. 

3.  Spanish  cochineal  is  rarely  seen  on  the  market, 
and  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 

4.  East  Indian  cochineal  is  obtained  chiefly  from 
Java,  and  is  much  inferior  to  the  American  kinds. 

Good  cochineal  should  be  free  from  dust,  shining, 
odorless,  consisting  of  whole,  filled  animals,  dry  and 
provided  with  cross- wrinkles ;  the  taste  is  sharp  and 
bitter. 

Adulterations  frequently  occur  by  mixing  it  with 
•wild  cochineal ;  the  discolored  cochineal  is  dyed  by 
rolling  it  into  white-lead,  chalk,  etc.,  and  is  placed  in 
a  moist  cellar,  where  it  absorbs  moisture,  by  which 
the  dyestuff  preferably  adheres,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  weight  increases.  Artificial  cochineal  also 
occurs,  consisting  of  clay  which  is  formed  in  cochi- 
neal-like crops  and  dyed,  but  is  easily  discovered  in 
•water.  Cochineal  should  be  kept  in  dry  places,  as  it 
easily  absorbs  moisture;  when  it  is  thus  kept  it 
remains  a  long  time  without  losing  any  of  its  ele- 
ments as  a  dyestuff. 

Cochineal  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and  most 
durable  red  dyestuffs,  and  is  employed  in  dyeing  silk, 
wool,  or  cotton ;  moreover  in  the  manufacture  of  red 
ink,  cosmetics,  in  dyeing  liquors,  etc.  The  pure  dye- 
stuff  is  called  carmine,  which  forms  a  rich  red  or  crim- 
son color  with  a  shade  of  purple.  Being  the  dearest 
of  all  red  dyestuffs  it  is  often  adulterated,  generally 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  225 

with  cinnabar,  whereby  it  obtains  a  lighter  appear- 
ance and  also  becomes  heavier.  This  adulteration  is 
easily  discovered  by  pouring  ammonia  over  a  small 
piece; -the  pure  carmine  dissolves  perfectly,  but  the 
cinnabar  remains  insoluble.  Solution  of  carmine  is 
of  a  beautiful  red  color. 


b.— PRODUCTS  FROM   CRUSTACEAN   ANIMALS. 

This  class  of  the  arthropods  contribute  but  little 
to  commerce,  and  the  most  important  is  the  lobster. 

LOBSTER, 

Hummer,  Homard,  Hummer. 

Is  any  large  macrurous  crustacean  used  as  food, 
especially  those  of  the  genus  Homarus ;  as  the  Amer- 
ican lobster,  European  lobster,  and  Norwegian 
lobster. 

All  these  have  a  pair  of  large,  unequal  pincers. 
The  spring  lobster  of  Southern  waters,  belonging  to 
the  Palinurus  and  allied  genera,  have  no  pincers.  A 
lobster  sometimes  attains  such  a  size  as  to  weigh 
twelve  or  fourteen  pounds  when  loaded  with  spawn, 
although  a  lobster  of  one  pound  weight,  or  even 
less,  is  deemed  very  fit  for  the  market.  It  is  in  best 
season  from  October  to  the  beginning  of  May.  It  is 
needless  to  say  how  highly  the  lobster  is  esteemed 
for  the  table. 

Shrimp  is  any  one  of  the  numerous  species  of 
macruran  crustracea  belonging  to  the  crangon  and 
various  allied  genera,  having  a  slender  body  and 
long  legs.  Many  of  them  are  used  as  food.  The 
larger  kinds  are  also  called  prawrns. 

Crawfish  is  any  Crustacea  of  the  family  Astacidae, 
resembling  the  lobster,  but  smaller  and  found  in  fresh 


226  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

waters.  Crawfish  are  esteemed  a  very  delicate  food 
both  in  Europe  and  America.  The  North  American 
species  are  numerous  and  mostly  belong  to  the  genus 
Cambarus. 

Crab  is  one  of  the  brachyuran  Crustacea.  They 
are  mostly  marine,  and  usually  have  a  broad,  short 
body,  covered  with  a  strong  shell  or  carapace.  The 
abdomen  is  small  and  curled  up  beneath  the  body. 
The  name  is  applied  to  all  the  brachyura,  and  to 
certain  anomura,  as  the  hermit  crabs.  Many  species 
are  edible,  the  blue  crab  of  the  Atlantic  coast  being 
most  esteemed. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
Products  from  Radiata. 

Radiata  is  an  extensive  artificial  group  of  inverte- 
brates, having  all  the  parts  arranged  radially  around 
the  vertical  axis  of  the  body,  and  the  various  organs 
repeated  symmetrically  in  each  ray  or  spheromere. 
Few  articles  of  commerce  are  obtained  from  this 
class;  the  important  are  trepang  and  coral. 

TREPANG, 

Or  beeche-de-mer,  an  article  of  luxury  among  the 
Chinese,  consisting  of  the  dried  bodies  of  several 
species  of  the  Holothuria,  or  sea-cucumber,  which 
are  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  shallow  waters 
of  lagoons,  and  on  reefs,  from  the  southeastern 
coasts  of  Asia  to  New  Holland.  They  are  usually 
about  eight  or  nine  inches  long,  and  are  often  found 
nearly  buried  in  the  coral  sand,  their  feathered  ten- 
tacula  alone  floating  above  it.  They  are  split  down 
one  side,  boiled,  pressed  flat  with  stones,  dried  in  the 
sun,  and  afterward  in  smoke,  and  packed  in  bags,  in 
which  state  they  are  bought  by  the  Chinese,  and 
conveyed  in  junks  to  China.  Trepang  is  extremely 
gelatinous,  and  is  very  much  used  by  the  Chinese  as 
an  ingredient  in  rich  soups. 


227 


'216  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF    WAKES. 

CORAL. 

Corallcn,  Corail,  Korallcr. 

Corals  are  the  hard  parts  of  skeletons  of  various 
Anthozoa,  and  of  a  few  Hydrozoa.  Similar  struc- 
tures are  also  formed  by  some  Bryozoa.  All  assume 
diversified,  and  often  beautiful  forms,  according  to 
the  different  laws  which  govern  the  germination  of 
the  polypes  of  the  different  species.  The  whole  struc- 
ture sometimes  branches  like  a  shrub,  spreads  like  a 
fan,  or  assumes  the  form  of  a  cup,  a  flower,  a  mush- 
room. 

The  coral  of  commerce,  or  common  red  coral,  which 
is  so  much  admired  for  its  fine  color,  susceptible  of 
high  polish,  and  much  used  for  ornamental  purposes, 
is  chiefly  obtained  from  the  Mediterranean,  in  some 
parts  of  which  extensive  coral  fisheries  are  carried  on. 
Red  coral  has  a  shrub-like,  branching  form,  and 
grows  to  the  height  of  about  one  foot,  with  a  thick- 
ness like  that  of  a  little  finger.  Much  of  the  coral  of 
the  Mediterranean  is  exported  to  India,  but  red 
coral  is  also  obtained  in  the  Red  sea,  the  Persian 
Gulf,  etc.  Black  coral,  the  axis  of  which  is  rendered 
still  more  solid  by  the  greater  mixture  of  horn  with 
calcareous  matter,  is  still  more  highly  prized. 


CHAPTER  V. 
Products  from  Protozoa. 

SPONGES. 
Scliwiinnnc,  Epongc,  Svamp. 

The  sponges  are  creatures  of  very  low  organiza- 
tion, concerning  which  controversies  long  raged,  first 
as  to  whether  they  ought  to  be  referred  to  the  ani- 
mal or  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  more  recently  as 
to  their  relative  place  in  the  former  group.  They 
assume  diversified  forms,  which,  as  well  as  the  pecul- 
iarities in  the  structure  of  the  framework,  are 
characteristic  of  the  different  genera  and  species. 
Some  are  nearly  globular,  some  cup-shaped,  top- 
shaped,  conical,  cylindrical,  thread-like,  etc.;  some 
are  simple,  and  some  branched. 

Reproduction  takes  place  both  by  gemmation  and 
by  true  ova.  Many  of  the  gemmules  go  to  increase 
the  sponge  mass ;  but  the  greater  part  finally  become 
detached,  and  are  carried  out  into  the  water,  to  set- 
tle down  in  a  new  locality. 

The  sponge  is  obtained  by  diving,  the  diver  taking 
down  with  him  a  flat  piece  of  stone  of  a  triangular 
shape,  with  a  hole  drilled  through  one  of  its  corners ; 
to  this  a  cord  from  the  boat  is  attached,  and  the 
diver  makes  it  serve  to  guide  him  to  particular  spots. 
When  he  reaches  the  growing  sponges,  he  tears  them 
off  the  rocks  and  places  them  under  his  arms ;  he 

229 


230  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

then  pulls  at  the  rope,  which  gives  the  signal  to  his 
companions  in  the  boat  to  haul  him  up. 

The  sponges  employed  for  domestic  and  other  pur- 
poses derive  their  value  from  the  elasticity  and  com- 
pressibility of  their  fiberous  framework,  divested  of 
the  glassy  substance,  and  its  power  of  imbibing  fluids. 
The  kinds  fit  for  use  are  found  in  the  seas  of  warm 
climates.  Some  small  species  of  sponge  live  at  great 
depths. 

Several  species  of  sponge  are  in  use  for  economical 
purposes.  Two  species  are  chiefly  brought  from  the 
levant,  and  a  very  inferior  one  from  the  West  Indies 
and  the  coast  of  Florida.  The  trade  in  sponges  is 
very  considerable;  it  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  the  Turks 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  Bahama  Islands.  The 
sponges  of  the  Bahamas  and  other  West  Indian 
Islands  are  of  a  larger  size  and  coarser  quality;  but 
large  quantities  are  gathered.  The  sponges  are  torn 
from  the  rocks  with  a  fork  at  the  end  of  a  long  pole. 
To  get  rid  of  the  animal  matter  they  are  buried  for 
some  days  in  the  sand,  and  then  soaked  and  washed. 
The  uses  of  sponges  are  familiar  to  every  one. 


PART  III. 
Products  of  the  Mineral  Kingdom. 


CHAPTER  I. 
Precious  Stones. 

Precious  stones  or  gems  are  designations  applied  to 
all  those  minerals  which  may  be  distinguished  by  their 
hardness,  beauty,  luster,  color,  and  in  some  cases 
by  their  scarcity  and  transparency,  and  are  there- 
fore the  jewels  or  trinkets  of  trade. 

Generally  the  real  precious  stones  are  classified  as 
full  gems  or  jewels,  and  half  gems  or  colored  stones. 

The  former  class  includes  all  those  minerals  which, 
though  smaller  in  size,  are  characterized  by  a 
peculiar  softness  and  radiance  of  luster,  great  hard- 
ness and  the  ability  of  receiving  a  polish.  Often  its 
transparency  alone  determines  the  preciousness  of  a 
stone  which  may  be  either  clear  or  turpid. 

Half  jewels  are  commoner  and  of  a  less  degree  of 
hardness  than  full  jewels,  and  many  of  them  lack 
transparency  and  clearness. 

It  is  difficult  do  distinguish  between  these  two 
classes  of  gems. 

231 


232  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

The  merchantile  value  of  a  stone  cannot  rely 
solely  upon  its  classification,  as  much  depends  upon 
its  polish,  beaut\',  color,  and  upon  the  prevailing 
fashion.  It  therefore  frequently  occurs  that  a  stone 
of  the  second  class  is  preferred  to  a  real  gem. 

Precious  stones  are  divided  into  three  classes 
according  to  their  hardness. 

1.  Hard  gems,  harder  than  quartz. 

Diamond,  sapphire,  ruby,  topaz,  emerald, 
hyacinth,  garnet,  spinell,  etc. 

2.  Semi-hard  gem  stones,  which  are  between  quartz 
and  spar  in  hardness. 

Amethyst,  chalcedony,  opal,  chrysolith,  mountain 
crystal. 

3.  Soft  gem  stones,  which  are  softer  than  spar. 
Amber,  jet,  malachite. 

The  most  important  features  which  distinguish 
gem  stones  are  hardness,  weight,  color,  and  luster; 
these  qualities  may  easily  be  distinguished  in  polished 
as  well  as  unpolished  stones. 

In  mineralogy  hardness  is  determined  by  a  scale 
prepared  by  Mochs,  which  should  be  used  by  jewelers 
commonly.  The  scale  consists  of  several  minerals 
arranged  in  a  row,  each  possessing  a  greater  degree 
of  hardness  than  the  preceding,  and  is  therefore  able 
to  mark  it. 

The  degree  of  hardness  is  designated  by  figures, 
as  follows: 


1st  degree,  talc  (common). 
2nd       "       gypsum. 
3rd       "      calc  spar. 
4th        "       fluorspar. 
5th       "       apatit. 


6th  degree  field  spar. 
7th       "       quartz. 
8th       "       topaz. 
9th       "       corundum. 
10th       "       diamond. 


In  order  to  test  the  hardness  of  a  stone  an 
attempt  should  be  made  to  scratch  some  stone  in 
particular  by  beginning  at  the  hardest  on  the  scale 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  233 

until  the  degree  is  reached  upon  which  a  mark  is 
plainly  visible.  Then  by  applying  a  file  the  resist- 
ance which  is  met  with,  and  the  noise,  tells  whether 
it  is  just  as  hard  as  the  grade  tested;  e.  g.,  oriental 
topaz  does  not  mark  ten  or  nine  on  the  scale,  but 
leaves  a  mark  upon  eight,  but  by  filing  it  will  be 
found  that  corundum  and  oriental  topaz  are  of  the 
same  degree  of  hardness. 

The  specific  gravity  of  gems  is  also  important  in 
distinguishing  them,  though  it  cannot  alone  be  used 
to  detect  spurious  stones,  as  the  latter  generally 
have  as  large  a  weight  in  proportion  to  their  volume 
as  the  genuine  gem.  The  glassy  substances  from 
which  the  imitations  are  produced  are  all  soft 
(generally  five),  and  can  therefore  be  tested  by  filing. 
A  hydrostatic  balance  is  generally  employed  to 
ascertain  the  specific  weight  of  the  gems. 

To  accurately  determine  the  \vorth  of  a  jewel  by 
its  color,  luster,  and  transparency  is  a  matter  which 
requires  experience,  and  is  only  accomplished  by  the 
skilled  and  trained  eye  of  an  experienced  jeweler. 

Very  delicate  tints  in  diamonds  can  be  discovered 
by  breathing  upon  them  ;  colorless  diamonds  appear 
purely  white  after  such  treatment.  Some  gems  can 
best  be  tested  in  artificial  light,  as  it  frequently 
occurs  that  they  then  reflect  a  different  color. 

The  most  valuable  gems  come  from  the  East 
Indies  and  from  the  hot  zone  generally.  The  gems 
from  the  northern  countries  are  usually  inferior  to  the 
same  product  from  the  south. 

The  mineralogical  names  frequently  vary  from 
those  designations  used  by  jewelers. 

The  sale  of  the  jewels  accords  with  their  weight, 
the  unit  of  which  is  the  carat,  which  is  divided  into 
%,  %,  %,  Yie  and  y94h 


234  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OK  WAKES. 

The  value  of  a  large  gem,  solitaire,  does  not  only 
increase  in  proportion  to  its  weight,  but  the  largest 
stones  are  prized  even  more  highly  owing  to  their 
exceeding  scarcity,  and  the  fact  that  several  stones 
cannot  be  melted  into  one. 

In  regard  to  the  price  of  gems,  nothing  definite  can  be 
said,  as  it  depends  upon  too  many  minor  circumstan- 
ces,especially  upon  the  prevailing  fashion.  In  stones  of 
the  same  kind,  clearness,  color,  and  purity  determine 
value,  while  the  skill  exhibited  in  cutting  lends 
additional  value  to  the  cut  and  polished  stones. 
Having  no  defects,  the  gems  regarded  as  most 
valuable  by  jewelers  in  the  order  of  their  worth,  are: 
Diamonds,  ruby,  emerald,  sapphire,  opal,  spinell. 

Gems  come  into  trade  partially  in  their  raw  state 
or  in  an  insufficiently  treated  condition.  They 
receive  their  regularity  of  outline  and  polish  by 
grinding  upon  turning-disks  which  are  covered  with 
powder.  The  manner  of  grinding  varies  according 
to  the  hardness  of  the  gem.  The  diamond  is  ground 
with  its  own  dust,  and  the  other  hard  gems  are 
ground  with  the  same  material,  and  the  softer 
stones  with  powder  derived  from  other  stones. 
High  polish  is  given  the  stones  by  treatment  with 
leather,  felt,  cloth,  paper,  and  other  materials. 

By  the  application  of  various  skillful  manipulations 
in  setting,  e.  g.,  coloring  the  lower  side  of  the  stone, 
the  effect  is  sought  to  be  heightened  and  the  defects 
are  thereby  hidden.  It  is  frequently  very  difficult, 
under  these  circumstances,  to  estimate  the  value  of  a 
set  gem.  The  best  way  of  examining  a  stone  is  by 
the  use  of  a  good  compound  microscope,  which 
easily  reveals  any  flaws  which  a  jewel  may  contain. 

The  delicate  rents  in  gems  are  most  difficult  to  dis- 
cover and  can  best  be  detected  by  immersing  them  in 
oil  of  anis,  until  the  oil  has  filled  the  fracture  and 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  235 

thereby  made  the  flaw  visible.  This  test  can  he 
applied  only  to  rough  stones,  as  the  fractures  of  the 
polished  gems  are  often  artificially  filled. 

The  fraudulent  practice  of  persons  engaged  in  the 
preparation  of  jewels  is  so  extensive  and  common 
that  purchasers  must  observe  the  utmost  care  to 
evade  deception.  The  mounting  of  a  small  part  of 
a  gem  upon  a  base  of  quartz  by  the  use  of  putty  is  a 
very  common  practice  and  is  best  detected  by  sub- 
jecting the  stone  to  a  degree  of  heat,  which  causes 
the  putty  to  melt. 

DIAMOND. 

Diamant.  Diamant,  Diamant. 

The  diamond  is  the  hardest  and  costliest  gem.  Its 
hardness  equals  10,  and  its  specific  gravity  is  3.4  to 
3.6.  It  must  be  pure,  sparkling,  and  colorless. 
With  reference  to  these  conditions  jewelers  classify 
these  gems  as  of  the  first,  second  and  third  -water. 
The  color  of  gems  is  varied  ;  \vhile  the  majority  are 
colorless  still  there  are  pink,  yellow,  green,  brown, 
blue,  and  black  diamonds.  The  colorless  diamonds 
are  most  highly  prized;  though  fashion  largely 
governs  their  value. 

Diamonds  usually  appear  rough  on  their  outer 
surface.  Their  color  cannot  therefore  be  ascertained 
before  they  are  split  or  cut.  The  black  diamond 
occurs  in  two  forms,  crystallized  and  amorph.  The 
crystallized  black  diamond  is  nearly  translucent  and 
amorph  is  entirely  opaque.  It  is  converted  into 
dust  for  polishing. 

Diamonds  are  usually  found  in  loose  grains  and 
crystals  in  beds  of  sand  and  gravel.  The  best 
diamond  fields*  are  in  East  India,  Brazil,  Cape 

*  Since  the  opening  of  the  diamond  mines  on  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  large  diamonds  have  become  rery  common  and  a  thirty 
carat  stone  is  not  even  rare.  The  Bast  Indian  stones  are  of  a  superior 
quality  to  these. 


236  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Colonies  of  Africa,  United  States,  Australia,  Borneo, 
and  Sumatra. 

The  largest  known  East  Indian  diamond  is  a  stone 
of  300  carats,  in  possession  of  the  Rajah  of  Matum 
on  the  island  of  Borneo.  (It  is  in  its  rough  state.) 
The  stone  in  possession  of  the  Portuguese  Crown, 
which  weighs  1,680  carats,  appears  to  be  a  water 
colored  topaz  rather  than  a  diamond. 

Diamonds  have  a  phosphorescent  appearance  in 
the  dark.  They  are  the  only  gem  stones  which  burn, 
as  they  consist  of  pure  carborn. 

In  regard  to  the  origin  and  nature  of  the  diamond 
but  little  is  known.  The  prevalent  idea  being,  that 
it  has  been  formed  from  fluid  vegetable  matter. 
Diamonds  have  been  reproduced  in  small  crystals 
through  the  influence  upon  coal  of  a  strong  electric 
current. 

The  cutting  of  diamonds  is  carried  on  chiefly  in 
Amsterdam  where  there  are  several  large  institutions 
which  operate  by  steam.  Diamonds  are  formed  into 
various  shaped  ornaments;  e.  g.,  brilliants,  rosettes, 
etc. 

Diamonds  which  lack  in  color  or  otherwise  are 
used  largely  by  glass-cutters. 

The  value  of  a  diamond  depends  upon  its  beauty, 
size  and  finish,  and  largely  upon  the  prevalent  style 
or  fashion. 

CORUNDUM. 

Under  this  title  the  mineralogists  combine  several 
minerals.  The  hardness  of  corundum  is  9,  their 
weight  is  3.9  to  4.1.  When  found  it  is  crystallized 
and  hard,  and  consists  of  pure  clay,  colored  with 
metal  oxide. 

According  to  its  transparency  and  color  jewelers 
distinguish  between  the  varieties  of  corundum  as 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  237 

follows :  Blue  sapphire,  red  ruby,  violet  oriental 
amethyst,  yellow  oriental  topaz,  and  colorless  sap- 
phire. 

The  most  important  sapphire  fields  are  in  Burmah, 
Turkestan,  and  Ceylon. 

a. — SAPPHIRE. 

The  most  highly  valued  sapphires  are  the  uniformly 
blue  stones.  In  order  to  ascertain  the  price  of  a 
beautiful  sapphire  it  is  customary  to  multiply  the 
number  of  carats  by  four  and  divide  the  product  by 
half  the  price  of  a  stone  containing  a  single  carat. 

White  sapphire  is  rare,  colorless  and  sometimes 
sold  for  diamonds. 

Green  sapphire  is  very  rare;  its  commercial  name 
is  oriental  emerald. 

Sapphires  are  formed  into  rosettes,  brilliants,  etc. 

b. — RUBY. 

Rubies  are  cochineal  red,  and  are  valued  more 
highly  than  sapphires.  Stones  of  a  deep  red  com- 
mand the  price  of  good  diamonds,  while  a  ruby  of 
a  light  color  brings  from  twenty  to  twenty-five 
dollars  a  carat.  The  color  of  rubies  disappears 
when  the  stone  is  highly  heated  but  reappears  when 
it  has  cooled  off. 

c. — Oriental  topaz  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  topaz  by  its  superior  hardness  and  bril- 
liancy. 

d. — Oriental  amethyst  is  harder  and  brighter  than 
the  common  amethyst. 

e. — Corundum  vermil  is  a  brilliant  yellowish -red 
stone  possessing  a  3rellow  or  white  luster. 

f. — Oriental  aquamarine  a  greenish-blue  variety  of 
corundum. 


238  THE    KNOWLEDGE    OF  WARES. 

g, — Oriental  chrysolite  a  yellowish-green  variety  of 
corundum. 

CRYSOBERYL. 

Crysoberyl  is  a  lustrous,  highly  transparent 
yellowish-green  or  darker  green  gem  stone.  Its 
hardness  is  8.5  and  its  specific  gravity  3.7  to  3.8.  It 
is  found  in  the  sands  on  the  shores  of  streams  in 
Brazil,  Ceylon,  Burtnah,  Borneo  and  Siberia,  also  at 
Saratoga. 

Crysoberyl  consists  of  clay  and  beryl  earth.  In 
general  it  is  not  much  sought  after,  and  only  finely 
colored  transparent  pieces,  which  reflect  a  blue 
luster,  are  dear. 

SPINEL. 

Spinel  is  a  crystallized  mineral  which  consists  of 
clay,  magnesia,  and  a  small  quantity  of  iron.  It  is 
of  various  degrees  of  transparency  and  of  a  variety 
of  colors.  The  red  varieties  contain  traces  of  chro- 
mate,  and  when  transparent  are  classed  among  the 
gems.  Red  spinel  is  often  mistaken  for  ruby.  The 
density  and  weight  of  the  spinel  is  less  than  that  of 
the  ruby;  it  is  8  and  3.5  to  3.8  respectively. 

The  best  spinel  comes  from  Ceylon  and  Australia. 
It  is  cut  like  the  ruby. 

TOPAZ 

Is  a  common  and  therefore  low-priced  stone ;  its 
hardness  is  8  and  its  specific  gravity  3.4  to  3.6.  It 
is  either  colorless  or  yellow,  though  sometimes  red- 
dish and  greenish.  It  occurs  among  crystals  and  in 
loose  gravel.  The  finest  topaz  occurs  in  Brazil  and 
Siberia.  The  Brazilian  topaz  becomes  fire  red  when 
in  a  glow,  and  is  thus  known  as  the  Brazilian  ruby. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  239 

Colorless  topaz  is  of  great  clearness  and  takes  a 
high  polish.  They  are  sometimes  sold  as  diamonds. 
Brazil  furnishes  the  largest  quantity  of  this  stone. 

EMERALD  AND   BERYL. 

These  gems  are  varieties  of  the  same  mineral 
specie.  Their  hardness  is  7.5  to  8  ;  specific  gravity, 
2.67  to  2.77.  They  consist  of  clay,  beryl  earth  and 
silicon.  The  crystals  usually  appear  in  the  form  of 
six-sided  prisms. 

EMERALD. 

Emerald  is  a  short,  green  stone  of  varying  tints. 
It  is  very  transparent,  and  its  hardness  is  8.  The 
preferred  and  most  beautiful  of  this  variety  of  stones 
comes  from  Peru  and  the  Red  sea. 

Beautiful  emeralds  are  valued  at  from  $75  to  $100. 
Cloudy  stones  are  of.  less  value. 

BERYL. 

This  stone  is  light  green,  sky-blue,  yellow,  or  olive, 
and  sometimes  white.  The  crystals  are  long  and 
striped.  All  beryl  cannot  be  classed  among  the 
gems,  but  some  precious  stones  of  this  variety  are 
found  in  Siberia  and  Brazil. 

Green  beryl  (Aquamarine)  may  be  distinguished 
from  green  topaz  by  the  fact  that  it  is  less  trans- 
parent. 

Beryl  is  of  less  value  than  emerald.  Both  are 
used  in  the  production  of  brilliants  and  rosettes. 

HYACINTH  AND  ZIRCONE 

Are  two  inferior  gems  which  can  be  distinguished 
by  their  color.  They  are  found  imbedded  in  quartz 
or  occur  in  loose  crystals.  Ceylon,  Madras,  Aus- 


240  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

tralia  and  Bohemia  are  the  principal  places  in  which 
these  stones  are  found.  Their  hardness  is  7.5,  weight, 
4.4  to  4.7.  They  are  often  highly  transparent.  The 
color  is  various, — white,  yellow,  green,  etc.  The  red 
color  is  the  only  one  which  is  bright.  The  combina- 
tion is  zircone,  oxide  of  iron  and  silicon. 

The  transparent  yellow  and  red  pieces  are  termed 
hyacinth;  the  remaining  are  zircone. 

The  dark  colored  stones  are  regarded  most  highly. 
The  colored  zircones  of  Ceylon  were  formerly  mis- 
taken, for  diamonds  of  inferior  quality,  and  were 
known  as  jargon  de  Ceylon. 

GARNET. 

Of  the  large  number  of  well  crystallized  minerals 
which  are  termed  garnet,  in  mineralogy,  there  are 
several  transparent  varieties  which  are  considered 
gems.  These  are  the  alamandin,  pyrop,  and  the 
karneel. 

1.  Alamandin,  or  oriental  garnet,  has  a"  beautiful 
cherry  or  blood-red  color;    is    highly  transparent. 
Its  hardness  is  from  6.5  to  7.5  and  weight  from  3.5 
to  4.3. 

The  finest  alamandins  come  from  Peru  and  Ceylon. 
Faultless  dark-red  stones  of  this  variety  command 
a,  high  price. 

2.  Pyrop  or  Bohemian  garnet  has  a  blood-red 
color  which  is  decidedly  superior  to   alamandin   and 
is  very  transparent.     Its  hardness  is  7.5  and  weight 
3. 7  to  3. 8. 

Pyrop  is  found  in  Bohemia  where  it  is  dug  from 
pits,  and  is  formed  into  brilliants  and  rosettes. 

3.  Karneel  is  of  various  tints,  from  a  light  yellow 
to  a  deep  red.    It  is  found  in  Ceylon  and  in  the  Can- 
ton of  Graubiinden,  Switzerland. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  241 

OPAL. 

A  number  of  these  stones  are  classified  among  the 
gems.  It  is  partially  colorless  and  milky  white, 
brown  and  red;  its  hardness  is  from  5.5  to  6.5, 
weight  1.9  to  2.1.  Opal  consists  of  water  and 
silicon. 

The  most  precious  of  these  is  the  milky  white  opal. 
It  is  semi-transparent  and  is  distinguished  from  the 
other  varieties  by  its  remarkable  play  of  colors. 
This  kind  of  opal  is  found  only  in  Hungaria  and  as 
the  stone  is  exceedingly  rare  it  commands  a  very 
high  price.  They  are  used  in  rings,  earrings  and 
jewelry  in  general. 

CALAITE. 

The  real  calaite  possesses  a  sky  blue  color  blended 
with  green.  Hardness,  6;  specific  gravity,  2.8.  It  is 
slightly  lustrous,  opaque,  and  consists  of  phosphor- 
ous, clay,  water,  and  copper.  It  comes  from  Persia, 
and  is  never  in  a  crystallized  condition. 

All  that  comes  into  trade  under  this  title  is  not 
calaite,  but  is  often  the  decomposed  bone  matter  of 
animals  penetrated  with  copperas  or  phosphate  of 
iron. 

Genuine  calaite  is  very  highly  prized,  especially  in 
the  Orient. 

ROCK   CRYSTAL. 

Rock  crystal  is  the  purely  transparent  crystal  of 
quartz  which  is  either  colorless,  light  yellow,  gray, 
or  black.  It  is  a  crystalline  six-sided  spar  which 
terminates  in  a  point.  Sometimes  these  crystals  lose 
their  regular  forms  by  being  rolled  in  sand.  Its 
hardness  is  7;  specific  gravity,  2.69,  and  it  consists 
of  silicon.  The  mountain  crystals  are  often  termed 
occidental  diamonds. 


242  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

The  most  beautiful  rock  crystal  comes  from  Switz- 
erland, the  Rocky  mountains  and  other  places.  They 
are  now  rarely  used  as  ornaments,  though  some- 
times found  in  the  form  of  lockets  and  prisms  deco- 
rating lamps. 

VIOLET  QUARTZ. 

Violet  quartz  varies  from  rock  crystal  principally 
in  its  color,  which  is  between  a  deep  violet  and  a 
light  red.  It  is  regarded  most  highly  when  uniform 
and  dark. 

Violet  quartz  is  found  in  round  crystals  in  Hun- 
gary, Saxony,  Siberia,  Ceylon  and  Spain.  Its  use 
is  widespread,  and  includes  all  classes  of  ornamental 
and  decorative  wares. 

PRECIOUS  QUARTZ. 

Various  varieties  of  quartz,  conspicuous  by  their 
hardness  and  beauty,  are  designated  by  various 
names.  Among  these  are : 

a. — CHALCEDONY. 

It  is  milky  white,  gray,  yellow,  brown,  greenish, 
etc.,  in  variations.  It  occurs  striped,  clouded,  and 
spotted.  It  is  semi-transparent. 

Chalcedony  in  which  light  and  dark  stripes  alter- 
nate is  termed  Chalcedon-onyx.  The  finest  Chalced- 
ony is  found  in  Brazil,  Ceylon,  and  Nubia. 

It  is  manufactured  into  various  articles  of  orna- 
mentation. Onyx  is  highly  prized. 

6. — KARNEOL 

Is  blood-red  with  a  yellowish  tinge ;  the  dark  red 
variety  is  termed  sarder.  When  it  is  beautifully 
striped  with  white  and  brown  lines  it  is  termed 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  243 

karneol-onyx.     The  finest  karneol  is  found  in  Africa, 
Siberia,  Saxony,  etc.     It  is  preferred  to  cameo. 

c. — CAT'S  EYE 

Is  brown,  gray,  green,  or  red,  with  a  peculiar  pupil 
emitting  a  white  or  yellow  light,  which  results  from 
asbestos  fibers  which  are  inclosed  in  the  stone.  It 
occurs  on  Ceylon,  Malabar,  etc.,  and  is  used  to  orna- 
ment rings. 

d. — HELIOTROPE 

Is  green  with  red  and  yellow  dots,  and  is  trans- 
lucent. It  occurs  in  Siberia  and  Egypt ;  it  is  used  in 
rings  and  is  valued  according  to  its  degree  of  trans- 
parency. 

e. — CRYSOPROSE 

Is  green,  translucent  somewhat  softer  than  chalced- 
ony. It  is  found  in  Silesia.  Large  pieces  are  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  jewelry  cases  and  ornamental 
wares.  Its  price  is  moderate. 

f. — AVANTURINE. 

A  light  brown  or  red  quartz,  which  is  either  trans- 
parent or  translucent ;  its  interior  is  full  of  bright 
red  spots.  It  is  found  in  Siberia  and  Spain.  It  is 
not  highly  valued  and  is  in  but  slight  demand. 

g. — JASPER 

Is  a  translucent  stone  composed  of  clay  and 
oxide  of  iron.  It  is  of  a  variety  of  dull  colors. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  jasper,  striped  jasper, 
round  jasper  and  common  jasper. 

It  is  used  extensively  for  ornamentation,  and  is 
found  largely  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  our 
country. 


244  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

AGATE 

Is  the  name  applied  to  a  variety  of  quartz.  Agates 
are  often  beautifully  delineated.  Its  substance  is 
largely  chalcedony  and  karneol.  Its  varieties  are 
band  agate,  landscape  agate,  moss  agate,  etc.  The 
colors  of  agates  are  often  artificially  produced 
or  heightened  by  immersion  in  oxide  of  iron  or  by 
warming  in  syrup.  Agates  composed  of  layers  of 
various  colors  are  termed  onyx. 

Agates  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  great  lakes 
in  the  Rocky  mountains  and  other  places  in  this 
country.  Its  use  is  the  same  as  that  of  any  other 
gem,  the  variety  with  water  marks  being  especially 
sought  after  for  onyxes. 

OBSIDIAN 

Is  a  glossy  mineral  which  has  a  shell-like  fracture 
and  is  translucent.  Its  color  is  black  or  brown. 
Large  layers  of  this  stone  are  found  in  America.  It 
bears  various  names  in  trade,  e.  g.,  lava  glass,  glass 
lava,  etc.  It  is  used  in  producing  jewelry  cases,  and 
the  like. 

FLUOR  SPAR. 

This  mineral  occurs  in  crystallized  cubes..  It  is 
translucent  and  lustrous;  its  specific  gravity  is  3. 14; 
hardness,  4.  It  is  found  largely  in  the  regions  of  the 
Rockies,  which  may  be  said  of  most  all  the  inferior 
gems,  though  the  best  varieties  of  spar  occur  in  Der- 
byshire, England. 

It  consists  of  calcium  and  fluor,  and  can  be  etched 
by  the  use  of  fluor  acid,  which  is  yielded  by  combin- 
ing sulphuric  acid  and  the  spar. 

Jt  furnishes  an  imitation  emerald  or  ruby. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  245 


MALACHITE 

Is  used  as  an  ornament  on  account  of  its  beauty  of 
color  and  ability  to  take  a  high  polish.  It  has  an 
emerald  hue  and  a  crystalline  formation.  The  finest 
varieties  are  used  in  preparing  earrings,  ring  stones, 
etc.,  while  the  larger  pieces  are  used  in  making  table 
tops,  vases,  and  ornamental  wares.  The  larger 
pieces  frequently  bring  high  prices. 

SATIN  SPAR, 

Is  a  fiberous  mineral  which  has  the  luster  of  moth- 
er-of-pearl and  the  consistency  ot  lime.  Its  hardness 
Sand  specific  gravity  2.7.  It  takes  a  high  polish, 
and  is  frequentlv  used  as  an  article  of  ornamenta- 
tion.^  

*  Amber,  which  is  also  a  precious  mineral,  is  classified  among  the 
res'ins  on  account  of  its  resinous  consistency.  Jet  or  coal  pitch  is  a  simi- 
lar resinous  mineral  which  comes  from  brown  coal. 


CHAPTER  II. 
Ornamental  and  Building   Material. 

There  are  several  among  the  foregoing  which  might 
properly  be  classified  under  this  heading;  e.  g.,  satin 
spar,  malachit,  fluor  spar. 

MEERSCHAUM. 

Meerschaum,  Ecume  de  mer,  Sjoskum. 

This  mass  is  a  combination  of  magnesia,  silicon  and 
water.  It  occurs  in  thick  masses.  Its  hardness  is 
2.2  to  2.5;  and  its  specific  gravity  0.8  to  1.1. 
Meerschaum  is  translucent,  soft  and  slightly  fatty. 
It  frequently  contains  hard  particles  of  quartz.  Its 
color  is  white  with  a  slight  yellow,  gray,  or  red 
tinge.  The  finest  meerschaum  is  found  in  Greece  and 
Spain.  It  is  found  imbebbed  in  the  sand  on  the  sea 
shore.  Turkey  meerschaum  is  the  principal  variety 
of  this  kindin  quantity. 

In  their  raw  state,  the  pieces  of  meerschaum  are 
formed  into  pipes  and  pipe  and  cigar  stems.  They  are 
then  cooked  in  milk  and  polished.  The  principal 
places  of  manufacture  are  Trieste  and  Vienna.  They 
are  packed  in  cotton  and  transported  in  cases.  From 
1,000  to  1,100  piecesare  contained  in  a  case. 

The  appearance  of  the  meerschaum  bowls  is  very 
rough ;  they  are  therefore  smoothed  and  cooked  in 
wax,  to  give  them  beauty  of  color  when  used.  The 

246 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  247 

price  of  meerschaum  depends  upon  its  purity,  white- 
ness and  softness. 

FIGURESTONE 

Is  a  silicated  clay  from  which  idols  are  produced  by 
the  Chinese  and  sent  out  into  commerce.  The  color 
of  this  stone  is  usually  white,  gray,  or  yellow,  and  it 
is  often  mistaken  for  the  following  mineral. 

SOAPSTONE 

Is  a  mixture  of  magnesia  and  silicon  which  appears 
in  a  crystallized  form ;  it  possesses  a  coarse  fracture 
and  is  translucent.  By  heating  it  becomes  hard 
enough  to  cut  glass.  It  is  used  in  producing  play- 
things, gas  burners,  statuary  and  utensils  of  various 
kinds. 

POTSTONE. 

This  stone  is  a  compact  mixture  of  talc,  glimmer 
and  chlorine,  and  is  found  in  many  countries. 

Potstone  is  of  a  greenish-blue  color,  soft  though 
rather  tenacious.  Its  fracture  appears  glossy  and  is 
translucent. 

On  account  of  its  ability  to  withstand  fire  it  is 
formed  into  a  variety  of  kitchen  utensils  and  then 
burnt  to  add  hardness.  This  is  done  in  Italy  and 
Tyrol. 

SERPENTINE 

Is  a  mixture  of  silicon  and  water,  is  of  an  olive 
green  color,  and  is  usually  spotted  or  striped.  Ser- 
pentine is  lusterless,  splint}',  opaque,  or  slightly 
translucent.  It  is  soft,  and  can  easily  be  operated 
upon  with  steel  utensils,  ft  is  found  in  large  layers 
in  Saxony,  England  and  America. 

Serpentine  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  vases, 
pipes,  dominoes,  mortars  and  dice.  In  larger  articles 


248  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

it  appears  in  the  form   of  gravestones  and  pillars ; 
these  possess  marked  endurance. 

GYPSUM. 

This  mineral  is  composed  of  s*ulphuric  acid,  lime, 
and  water,  and  occurs  either  crystallized  or  in  fine 
grains.  It  is  usually  dull  in  color,  but  sometimes 
has  the  luster  of  glass. 

The  following  varieties  of  gypsum  are  treated  from 
a  technical  standpoint : 

a. — SPARRY    GYPSUM. 

These  are  the  crystallized  leafy  pieces  of  gypsum 
which  are  colorless  and  glossy.  It  was  formerly 
used  as  medicine. 

b. — ALABASTER. 

It  occurs  in  grains  of  a  thick  texture.  It  is  trans- 
lucent. Its  color  is  white.  The  cleanest  varieties 
are  used  in  producing  statuary,  especially  by  the 
Italians.  Vases  and  articles  of  ornamentation  are 
also  manufactured  therefrom. 

Unclean  gypsum  is  burnt  and  appears  in  trade  in 
the  form  of  a  white  powder ;  when  mixed  with  a 
little  water  it  forms  a  dough  which  readily  hardens. 
It  is  used  in  producing  statuary,  bas-reliefs,  matrixes, 
etc.,  and  is  commonly  known  as  plaster  of  Paris  in 
this  form.  When  heated  to  an  even  greater  degree  it 
is  used  in  plastering  walls  and  filling  rents  in  hard- 
ware. 

It  is  also  used  as  a  fertilizer,  and  is  then  known  as 
landplaster. 

LIME    AND    MARBLE. 

Lime  is  a  highly  useful  mineral.  It  occurs  both 
crystallized  and  in  a  solid  mass  and  forms  layers, 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  249 

often  of  vast  expansion.  Its  color  is  usually  white, 
though  often  tinged  through  contact  with  various 
oxides. 

Of  the  various  varieties  of  lime  the  following  are  of 
importance : 

1.  Calcareous  spar  is  the  pure  crystalline  variety 
of  lime ;  it  is  fully  transparent.     Its  use  is  confined  to 
technical  optics. 

2.  Fiberous  limestone  is  treated  under  the  name 
of  satin  spar. 

3.  Firm  limestones ;  among  these  are  varieties  of 
marble,  lithographic  stone  and  common  limestone. 

4.  The  earthy  lime  known  as  crayon. 

The  firm  limestones  often  possess  a  degree  of  hard- 
ness sufficient  to  make  them  fit  for  polishing,  and 
are  then  known  as  marble.  They  are  used  in  orna- 
menting buildings.  The  real  toy  marbles  and  allies 
are  manufactured  from  this  stone.  Marble  consti- 
tutes the  best  available  stone  for  statuary  and  tomb- 
stones. 

The  purely  \vhite  or  Italian  marble  is  regarded  as 
a  superior  article  of  this  class  and  commands  a  high 
price.  Clouded  or  streaked  white  marble  is  considered 
inferior. 

Breccia  marble  is  a  variety  having  a  -white  or 
a  violet  background  with  variously  colored  dots. 

Some  marbles  are  also  interwoven  with  other 
material  as  serpentine,  talc,  etc. 

Common  lime  is  often  used  in  the  preparation  of 
chloride  of  lime,  soda,  in  stearin,  and  in  sugar  refin- 
eries. Burnt  lime  must  not  be  subjected  to  the 
atmosphere  as  it  readily  attracts  dampness  and  falls 
apart. 

Mortar  is  a  mixture  of  slacked  lime  with  sand. 
The  following  are  the  varieties  of  lime  used  in  mor- 
tar: 


250  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

1.  White  lime,  used  in  walls  which  are  dry. 

2.  Gray  lime  requires  little  sand,  dries  readily,  and 
can  be  used  in  damp  walls. 

3.  Hydraulic  lime;  this  hardens  only  underwater. 
It  is  formed  by  the  addition  of  cement  to  common 
lime. 

4.  Concrete  is  a  mixture  of  small  stones,  slacked 
lime,  broken  stones  and  cement ;  it  is  used  in  prepar- 
ing a  foundation  for  buildings,  which  are  built  in 
damp  places. 

CEMENT. 

Cement  is  a  certain  substance  yielded  from  burnt 
lime  mixed  with  hydraulic  mortar.  There  are  nat- 
ural and  artificial  cements ;  among  these  puzzolane 
and  trosz. 

The  best  puzzolane  is  produced  from  a  volcanic 
sand  of  a  dark  gray  or  brown  color.  When  lime  is 
added  it  yields  an  excellent  mortar  for  moist 
places. 

One  of  the  excellent  varieties  of  cement  is  the  well 
known  Portland  cement,  which  is  produced  by  burn- 
ing blocks  of  lime.  It  is  of  a  dark  green  color,  and  is 
commonly  preferred  to  Roman  cement,  which  is  of  a 
lighter  color  and  similar  variety. 

Among  the  building  and  ornamental  materials  the 
following  are  to  be  mentioned :  Sandstone,  granite, 
syenite,  porphyx,  and  slate,  which  is  used  to  cover 
the  roofs  of  buildings,  floors  and  furnishes  table 
tops. 


CHAPTER  III. 
Grinding  and  Polishing  Stones. 

DIAMOND    POWDER 

Is  a.  designation  for  the  dust  -which  arises  from 
splitting,  sawing  and  grinding  diamonds,  and  some- 
times by  crushing  and  pulverizing  defective  stones. 
The  use  to  which  diamond  powder  is  put  is  princi- 
pally in  polishing  and  grinding  gems. 

EMERY. 

In  mineralogy  this  term  is  construed  to  mean  small, 
fine-grained  particles  of  corundum.  It  is  translucent 
and  often  mixed  with  magnetic  ore  or  glimmer.  Emery 
is  found  in  loose  pieces  near  Springfield,  Massachu- 
setts, and  Chester  in  the  Blue  mountains.  Emery  is 
yielded  by  heating  the  mineral  to  a  high  degree  and 
then  suddenly  cooling  it  off  with  water  and  crushing 
by  means  of  iron  tools.  Emery  is  also  produced 
from  crushed  hard  stones,  such  as  granite,  topaz, 
etc. 

Emery  is  used  in  smoothing  woodwork,  metal  and 
gems. 

Emery  paper,  also  sand  paper,  are  produced  by 
gluing  emery  or  sand  upon  sheets  of  thick  paper ; 
they  are  much  used  by  carpenters,  joiners,  and  finish- 
ers. Emery  stones  are  artificially  produced  stones 
from  emery,  used  for  grinding. 

251 


25ii  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

PUMICE    STONE. 

A  product  of  the  volcanoes  which  is  regarded  as 
molten  glass  produced  from  the  foam  of  other  miner- 
als. It  has  the  appearance  of  a  spongy  mass  and 
has  a  fiberous  fracture.  Its  color  is  white  with  a 
greenish  tinge.  Owing  to  its  porous  condition  it 
floats  on  water.  It  is  brittle  and  feels  rough. 

Pumice  stone  is  continually  thrown  forth  by  the 
volcanoes.  It  appears  in  trade  packed  in  barrels 
with  straw. 

Pumice  stone  is  sold  in  bulk  or  pulverized,  and  is 
used  by  finishers  to  give  a  painted  surface  the  hard- 
ness and  smoothness  of  polished  marble.  It  polishes 
gems,  metals  and  ivory. 

POLISHING    SLATE. 

It  is  a  thin,  opaque,  earthy  mineral  of  a  yellowish, 
nearly  white  color. 

It  is  found  in  layers  on  the  shores  of  lakes  and  seas, 
and  sometimes  in  mountains.  Its  use  is  confined  to 
polishing  silverware. 

TRIPOLI, 

A  light,  soft  and  earthy  mineral  of  a  gray  color, 
which  occurs  in  the  mountainous  regions  of  some  dis- 
tricts in  layers.  Pure  tripoli  consists  of  silicon,  clay 
and  oxide  qf  iron.  It  is  used  in  polishing  stones, 
metal  and  glass.  The  common  polishing  powder 
used  in  housework  consists  of  dextrin  and  tripoli. 

OXIDE  OF  IRON. 

Under  this  name  there  are,  in  trade,  several  varieties 
of  natural  and  artificial  products,  some  more  or  less 
mixed  with  clay  and  silicon. 

The  natural  red  oxide  of  iron  of  the  mineral  king- 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  253 

dom  is  found  in  round  globules  or  drops,  and  is  of  a 
dark  red  color,  though  bright  red  when  marred. 
The  best  mineral  of  this  variety  is  said  to  exist  in 
Spain.  It  is  powdered,  and  is  then  used  in  polishing 
steel  and  sharpening  edge  tools. 

Artificial  oxide  of  iron  is  made  of  alum,  vitriol,  or 
by  the  heating  of  ochre. 

For  very  fine  polishing  or  grinding  of  glassware  or 
for  use  on  razor  strops,  etc.,  a  mixture  is  prepared  of 
vitriol  and  oxide  of  iron  combined  with  common 
salt. 

Oxide  of  tin,  a  \vhitish  yellow  powder,  is  used  much 
in  polishing  glass  and  stones.  It  is  also  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  glass  and  queensware. 

TOUCHSTONE 

Used  as  a  test  stone  for  gold  and  silver,  may  con- 
sist of  any  dark  colored  hard  mineral.  Black  basalt 
is  used  for  this  purpose  also  some  varieties  of  slate, 
especially  silicon  slate  (black).  (In  regard  to  the 
use  of  this  stone  see  paragraph  on  gold  and  silver). 

GRIND  AND  WHETSTONE. 

Several  varieties  of  stones  serve  as  grind  and  whet- 
stones. 

Uniformly  grained  sandstones  are  used  for  this 
purpose.  The  grains  of  this  stone  are  combined  with 
lime,  silicon  or  clay. 

Artificial  grindstones  for  whetting  are  prepared  in 
Germany  and  France  from  the  powder  of  sandstone 
which  is  formed  into  a  dough  and  baked.  It  is  also 
produced  from  hardened  caoutchouc  or  magnesia  by 
adding  quartz  or  other  powdered  stone.  A  very  hard 
and  enduring  sandstone  is  produced  from  magnesia 
and  emery,  which  are  pressed  into  shape  by  means 
of  hydrostatic  pressure. 


254  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

For  finer  work,  substances  are  prepared  from  a 
slate  termed  wet  slate.  It  has  a  very  fine  grain  and 
is  green  with  a  grayish  tint.  It  is  taken  from  layers 
which  occur  in  mountainous  regions.  These  slates 
are  sawed  into  blocks  and  the  surface  is  then  pol- 
ished. 

The  whetstones  for  steel  instruments  are  prepared 
from  finely  grained,  silicated  limestones.  These  stones 
must  be  very  hard  and  uniformly  grained. 

The  best  stones  of  this  kind  are  the  so-called  oil- 
stones which  come  from  the  Orient ;  they  are  not 
moistened  with  water  when  used  for  whetting  but 
with  oil.  They  are  so  hard  that  steel  will  hardly 
marr  them.  They  are  used  especially  in  sharpening 
fine  edge  tools. 

MILLSTONES. 

Good  millstones  are  not  found  in  all  places,  and 
therefore  constitute  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce. 

Certain  hard  and  porous  stones  are  used  for  this 
purpose;  e.  g.,  millstone  quartz,  millstone  lava,  and 
several  grained  rocks,  namely,  sandstone  and 
granite. 

Millstone  quartz  is  a  very  fine  grained  variety  of 
quartz,  of  a  bluish  or  yellowish  tint  and  full  of  small 
pores,  although  it  is  very  hard.  It  serves  excellently 
for  grindstones  in  mills. 

Millstone  lava  is  a  hard,  porous,  volcanic  lava 
which  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in  grist  mills.  It 
is  usually  of  a  dark  gray  color,  and  is  so  hard  that 
when  steel  tools  come  in  contact  with  it  they  emit 
sparks. 

Sandstone  is  most  largely  used  in  the  production 
of  millstones.  It  must  be  uniform  in  grain  when 
used  for  this  purpose. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
Inflammable  and  Combustible  Materials. 

SULPHUR. 

Schwefel,  Soufre,  Svafrel. 

Sulphur  is  a.  simple  chemical  substance.  When 
other  substances  are  added  it  is  termed  artificial  sul- 
phur to  distinguish  it  from  pure  and  natural  sul- 
phur. 

The  natural  sulphur  is  found  in  a  firm  crystalline 
mass  in  an  earthy  condition.  It  possesses  a  fatty 
appearance  and  is  translucent.  Its  hardness  is  1.5 
to  2.5 ;  specific  gravity,  2.0.  When  heated  to  150°  C. 
it  melts  into  a  yellow,  oily  liquid.  At  220°  it 
becomes  brown  and  thickens ;  at  250°  it  again  turns 
a  liquid.  When  poured  into  cold  water  it  becomes 
transparent  and  remains  elastic  and  tenacious  for 
some  time.  By  cooling  slowly  the  sulphur  thickens. 
In  the  air  it  inflames  at  260°  and  burns  with  a  blue 
flame  and  thus  forms  several  gases.  Pure  sulphur 
leaves  no  residue  when  burned.  In  a  closed  space  it 
maybe  distilled  at  420°  without  a  particle  of  residue. 
In  water  sulphur  is  entirely  insoluble  though  soluble 
in  oxide  and  chloride  of  sulphur. 

Pure  sulphur  is  mined  in  large  quantities  in  some 
places.  At  Lac  Clear  in  California,  volcanic  action 
has  thrown  out  large  quantities  of  this  mineral.  It 
is  most  frequently  found  in  the  craters  of  volcanoes 

255 


256  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WAKKS. 

and  at  the  orifices  of  geysers  and  emitted  by  springs; 
e.  g.,  Sulphur  Springs,  of  Colorado.  Pure  sulphur 
comes  into  trade  as  raw  sulphur. 

Sulphur  is  also  yielded  from  several  minerals,  more 
particularly  from  silicated  sulphur  than  from  any 
other.  The  silicon  is  placed  into  earthen  tubes  where 
13  to  14  per  cent  of  sulphur  is  yielded  by  heat  and 
distillation.  The  raw  sulphur,  thus  obtained,  is  of  a 
gray  color. 

Considerable  quantities  of  sulphur  are  yielded  from 
the  residue  of  soda  by  the  manufacturers. 

A  part  of  the  sulphur  comes  into  trade  powdered. 
It  is  of  a  light  yellow  color  in  this  form,  and  in  order 
to  yield  the  powder  the  process  of  refining  must  be 
carried  on  at  a  very  low  temperature  to  prevent  the 
liquid  from  solidifying  into  a  mass.  In  preparing  it 
for  medicinal  purposes  it  must  be  washed  in  water 
containing  a  slight  quantity  of  ammonia. 

Sulphur  is  a  very  important  article  of  commerce, 
owing  to  the  manifold  uses  to  which  it  is  put, — in 
the  manufacture  of  powder,  matches,  sulphuric  acid, 
and  medicines,  in  bleaching  wool,  silk,  feathers,  etc., 
in  the  manufacture  of  ultramarine  and  vulcanizing  of 
caoutchouc. 

PHOSPHORUS. 

Phosphor,  Phosphore,  Fosfor. 

A  simple  chemical  substance  which  is  never  obtained 
pure  but  generally  combined  with  oxygen  and  is  thus 
known  as  phosphate  of  acid.  In  this  combination  it 
is  found  in  bones  from  which  phosphorus  is  yielded. 
For  this  purpose  the  burned  bones  are  immersed  in  a 
solution  of  sulphuric  acid,  and  thus  an  insoluble 
lime  is  formed  which  is  thickened  to  the  consistency 
of  syrup,  mixed  with  coal  dust,  and  cooled  in  a 
retort. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  257 

The  vapor  arising  from  the  mass  is  caught  under 
water  and  employed  in  distilling  and  clarifying  the 
mass.  Phosphorus  is  obtained  from  the  chemical 
manufacturers  in  translucent,  colorless  or  yellow- 
ish sticks,  which  are  yielded  by  melting  the  sulphur 
in  glass  tubes.  Phosphorus  is  slightly  hard  in  cold, 
but  soft  in  warm  weather.  It  possesses  poisonous 
properties.  In  the  air  it  emits  a  white  smoke  which 
has  a  garlic  odor.  It  is  luminous  in  the  dark  and 
oxidizes  slowly.  It  is  inflammable  at  60°  C.  or  by 
slightly  rubbingit.  Itmeltsat  44°  C.  and  changes  to 
vapor  at  29°  C.  Phosphor  us  must  be  preserved  under 
water  and  treated  with  much  care.  Cases  usually  con- 
tain four  tin  boxes  holding  from  ten  to  twelve  and  a 
half  pounds  each .  It  is  necessary  to  pack  the  article  in 
opaque  packages,  as  the  light  tends  to  change  its 
color  to  red.  Phosphorus  is  used  especially  in  the 
manufacture  of  matches;  also  in  the  preparation  of 
medicines,  and  in  the  production  of  fireworks. 

The  inflammable  part  of  matches  usually  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  phosphorus,  superoxide  of  lead,  and 
saltpeter,  and  an  adhesive  material  consisting  of 
starch,  Senegal  gum  and  glue. 

Amorphor  phosphorus  is  yielded  by  heating  the 
phosphorus  to  250°  C.  It  then  becomes  brown-red,  and 
loses  its  poisonous  effect,  and  is  not  as  inflammable. 
It  conies  into  trade  in  the  form  of  powder,  and  has 
recently  been  used  in  the  production  of  matches. 
The  first  perfect  matches  of  this  variety  were  pro- 
duced at  Jonkoping,  Sweden.  These  matches  are 
esteemed  all  over  the  world  as  the  best.* 

MINERAL  OILS. 

Naphtha  is  the  complex  mixture  of  volatile,  liquid, 
inflammable  hydrocarbons,  occurring  naturally,  and 
usually  called  crude  petroleum,  mineral  oil,  or  rock  oil, 

•Asphalt  is  treated  in  the  chapter  on  resins. 
17 


258  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

The  principal  kinds  of  naphtha  known  in  commerce 
are  native  naphtha,  coal  naphtha,  boghead  naphtha 
(also  called  paraffine  oil  and  photogen),  shale  naph- 
tha, and  naphtha  from  caoutchouc  or  caoutchine. 

Native  naphtha,  petroleum,  or  rock  oil,  is  found  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  asinNorth  America,  Japan, 
Burmah,  Persia,  Italy,  France,  is  a  dark  brown  or 
greenish  inflammable  liquid,  which,  at  certain  points, 
exists  in  the  upper  strata  of  the  earth,  from  whence 
it  is  pumped,  or  forced  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas 
attending  it.  It  consists  of  a  complex  mixture  of 
various  hydrocarbons,  largely  of  the  methane  series, 
but  may  vary  much  in  appearance,  composition,  and 
properties,  from  a  thin,  light,  colorless  fluid  to  a 
substance  as  thick  as  butter,  and  nearly  as  heavy  as 
water.  It  is  refined  by  distillation,  and  the  products 
include  kerosene,  benzine,  gasoline,  rhigolene,  ligroin, 
cymogene,  etc. 

Gasoline  is  a  highly  volatile  mixture  of  fluid  hydro- 
carbons, obtained  from  petroleum,  as  also  by  the 
distillation  of  bituminous  coal.  It  is  used  in  mak- 
ing air  gas,  and  in  giving  illuminating  power  to 
water  gas. 

Rhigoline  is  a  mixture  of  volatile  hydrocarbons 
intermediate  between  gasoline  and  cymogene.  It  is 
obtained  in  the  purification  of  crude  petroleum,  and 
is  used  as  a  refrigerant. 

Ligroin  is  applied  somewhat  indefinitely  to  some 
of  the  volatile  products  obtained  in  refining  crude 
petroleum.  It  is  a  mixture  of  several  hydrocarbons, 
and  is  more  inflammable  than  safe  kerosene.  It  is 
used  as  a  solvent,  as  a  carburetant  for  air  gas,  and 
for  illumination  in  special  lamps.  Cymogene  is  a 
highly  volatile  liquid,  condensed  by  cold  and  pres- 
sure from  the  first  products  of  the  distillation  of 
petroleum;  it  is  used  for  producing  low  temperature. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  259 

Kerosene  is  an  oil  used  for  illuminating  purposes, 
formerly  obtained  from  the  distillation  of  mineral 
•wax,  bituminous  shale,  etc.,  and  hence  called  coal  oil. 
It  is  now  produced  in  immense  quantities,  chiefly  by 
the  distillation  and  purification  of  petroleum.  It 
consists  chiefly  of  several  hydrocarbons  of  the  methane 
series. 

Benzine  is  a  liquid  consisting  mainly  of  the  lighter 
and  more  volatile  hydrocarbons  of  petroleum  or 
kerosene  oil,  used  as  a  solvent  and  for  cleansing 
soiled  fabrics ;  called  also  petroleum  spirit,  or  petro- 
leum benzine.  The  commercial  benzine  is  always 
impure.  Pure  benzine  is  most  readily  obtained  by 
distilling,  cautiously,  a  mixture  of  one  part  benzoic 
acid  with  three  parts  of  slacked  lime.  At  ordinary  tem- 
peratures, benzine  is  a  thin,  limpid,  colorless  liquid, 
evolving  a  characteristic  and  pleasant  odor. 

Coal-tar  naphtha  is  of  a  higher  specific  gravity  than 
petroleum,  and  has  a  more  disagreeable  and  pene- 
trating odor. 

Paraffine  oil  is  a  white,  waxy  substance,  resem- 
bling spermaceti.tasteless  and  odorless, and  obtained 
from  coal  tar,  wood  tar,  petroleum,  etc.,  by  distilla- 
tion. It  is  used  as  an  illuminant  and  lubricant.  It 
is  very  inert,  not  being  acted  upon  by  most  of  the 
strong  chemical  reagents. 

Shale  naphtha  or  shale  oil  is  a  substance  which  has 
been  manufactured  for  many  years,  from  bituminous 
shales  in  Europe ;  partly  because  the  boghead  coal 
has  become  practically  exhausted,  but  chiefly  because 
the  volatile  products  from  it  are  more  easily  purified 
than  from  any  coal. 

Naphtha  from  caoutchouc,  or  caoutchine,  is 
obtained  from  caoutchouc  by  destructive  distillation. 
In  composition  it  consists  mainly  of  hydrocarbons, 
having  the  same  proportion  of  carbon  to  hydrogen 


260  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

as  India  rubber.  Caoutchine  has  the  reputation  of 
being  one  of  the  best  solvents  for  India  rubber. 

Until  the  discovery  of  the  Pennsylvania,  the  Bur- 
mese petroleum  or  rock  oil  was  one  of  the  best 
known.  It  is  obtained  in  a  treacly  state  by  sinking 
wells  about  sixty  feet  deep  in  the  soil.  The  different 
naphthas  it  contains  are  highly  prized  as  burning 
and  lubricating  oils  and  for  removing  greasy 
stains.  Naphtha  is  found  abundantly  at  Baka,  on 
the  Caspian  sea.  The  Persian  naphtha  is  pure 
enough  for  burning.  Naphtha,  or  petroleum,  has 
lately  been  found  at  Peine,  in  Hanover,  where  it  is 
now  extensively  manufactured. 

Prominent  among  the  wonders  of  our  time,  how- 
ever, regarding  new  fields  of  industry  and  wealth, 
stand  the  discoveries  of  the  naphtha,  or,  as  they  are 
called,  the  petroleum  regions  of  the  United  States. 
Some  of  these  sources  of  petroleum  were  known  to 
the  Indians,  by  whom  it  was  at  one  time  collected 
for  sale ;  but  it  is  little  more  than  thirty  years  since, 
by  sinking  deep  wells,  the  great  extent  of  the  oil- 
bearing  strata  became  known.  The  principal  sup- 
plies are  obtained  in  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and 
Ohio,  a  considerable  quantity  being  also  obtained  in 
West  Canada.  Other  regions  in  North  America  pro- 
duce it,  but  the  Pennsylvania  yield  is  six  or  seven 
times  greater  than  all  the  rest  put  together.  The 
oil  regions  are  100  miles  in  length  by  30  to  50  in 
breadth,  and  the  number  of  wells  is  so  great  that  the 
supply  is  considered  to  be  sufficient  for  a  century  to 
come,  at  least. 

In  Pennsylvania  the  first  borings  for  petroleum 
took  place  in  1859,  and  in  that  year  82,000  barrels 
(reckoned  at  43  gallons  each)  were  obtained ;  in  1861 
the  product  had  reached  2,000,000  barrels;  and 
since  then,  as  a  rule,  it  has  increased  from  year  to 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  261 

year.  In  1879  the  annual  production  of  the  United 
States  was  given  at  about  15,000,000  barrels  (600,- 
000,000  gallons).  In  1878,  the  petroleum  exported 
from  the  United  States  had  an  aggregate  value  of 
$46,000,000.  Of  late  years,  the  petroleum  trade  is 
said  to  have  employed  in  North  America  as  many 
hands  as  coal-mining  and  the  working  of  iron. 

COAL. 

Steinkohle,  Houille,  Steakol. 

Coal  is  one  of  the  most  important  minerals.  It  is 
a  black,  or  brownish-black,  solid,  combustible  sub- 
stance ;  some  of  the  varieties  have  a  very  consider- 
able degree  of  vitreous  or  resinous  luster,  and  some 
are  very  destitute  of  luster ;  some  have  a  shell -like 
fracture,  and  some  have  a  sort  of  slaty  structure, 
and  are  readily  broken  into  cubical  or  rhomboid al 
fragments.  It  consists,  like  charcoal,  mainly  of  car- 
bon, but  more  compact,  and  often  affording,  when 
heated,  a  large  amount  of  volatile  matter. 

Coal  is  dug  from  beds  or  veins  in  the  earth.  Sev- 
eral theories  as  to  the  mode  of  the  origin  of  coal  have 
been  put  forth  from  time  to  time.  The  one  now  gen- 
erally believed  in,  is  that  the  rank  and  luxuriant  veg- 
etation which  prevailed  during  the  carboniferous 
age  grew  and  decayed  upon  land  but  slightly  raised 
above  the  sea ;  that  by  slow  subsidence  this  thick 
layer  of  vegetable  matter  sunk  below  the  water,  and 
became  gradually  covered  with  sand,  mud,  and  other 
mineral  sediments;  that  then,  by  some  slight 
upheaval  of  the  sea  bottom  or  other  process,  a  land 
surface  was  once  more  formed,  and  covered  with  a 
dense  mass  of  plants,  which  in  course  of  time  decayed, 
sank,  and  became  overlaid  with  silt  and  sand  as 
before.  At  length,  thick  masses  of  stratified  matter 
would  accumulate,  producing  great  pressure,  and 


262  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

this,  acting  along  with  chemical  changes,  would 
gradually  mineralize  the  vegetable  layers  into  coal. 

The  precise  characteristics  of  coal,  as  a  mineral 
species,  are  not  easily  defined ;  coal  is  rather  a  com- 
mercial than  a  scientific  term,  but  in  a  general  way 
we  may  define  it  as  a  fossil  fuel  of  black  color  and 
strong  consistency,  which,  when  heated  in  close  ves- 
sels, is  converted  into  coke  with  the  escape  of  volatile 
liquids  and  gases.  The  variety  known  as  blind  coal 
or  anthracite  no  doubt  gives  off  scarcely  any  volatile 
matter,  but  this  is  because  it  has  undergone  a  natu- 
ral distillation  through  metamorphism  or  other 
cause.  We  therefore  divide  coal  into  two  primary 
divisions,  namely,  1,  anthracite,  which  does  not  flame 
when  kindled,  and  2,  bituminous  coal,  which  flames 
when  kindled. 

Anthracite  sometimes  contains  as  much  as  94,  and 
if  we  exclude  the  ash,  98  per  cent  of  carbon,  and  as 
this  element  decreases  in  amount,  it  graduates  into 
a  bituminous  coal.  The  term  anthracite  is,  however, 
still  applied  to  some  coals  which  do  not  contain 
more  than  80  per  cent  of  carbon.  Various  synonyms, 
such  as  stone  coal,  glance  coal,  culm  coal,  etc.,  are 
also  used  to  designate  this  substance,  which  is  used 
chiefly  for  smelting  surposes  and  for  raising  steam. 
It  is  difficult  to  kindle,  but  gives  out  a  high  heat  in 
burning. 

Bituminous  coal  includes  an  almost  endless  number 
of  varieties,  one  of  the  best  marked  being  cannel  or 
parrot  coal,  which  in  different  localities  varies  much 
in  appearance,  but  it  is  most  commonly  dull  and 
earthy,  or  with  only  a  small  luster ;  some  examples 
are,  however,  bright  and  shining.  In  texture  it  is 
nearly  always  compact,  and  certain  beds  admit  of 
being  polished  in  slabs  of  considerable  size,  which 
approach  black  marble  in  appearance.  Of  this 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  263 

material  vases,  inkstands,  boxes,  etc.,  are  made. 
Cannel  coal,  from  the  large  percentage  of  ash  which 
it  contains,  is  not  suitable  for  house  fires,  and  is  for 
the  most  part  consumed  in  making  gas,  of  which  it 
yields  from  8,000  to  15,000  cubic  feet  per  ton.  When 
distilled  at  a  low  red-heat,  it  yields  paraffine  oil. 

The  other  varieties  of  bituminous  coal  are  very 
numerous,  but  the  following  are  the  leading  kinds : 
1,  Caking  coal,  which  fuses  or  cakes  into  one  mass  in 
the  fire.  It  breaks  into  small,  uneven  fragments.  2, 
Splint,  or  hard  coal,  has  a  kind  of  slaty  fracture,  and 
is  not  very  easily  kindled,  but  -when  lighted  makes  a 
clear  and  lasting  fire.  3,  Cherry,  or  soft  coal,  which 
breaks  easily  into  small,  irregular  cubes,  has  a  beau- 
tiful, shining  luster,  is  readily  kindled,  and  gives  out 
a  cheerful  flame  and  heat. 

Brown  coal  or  lignite  is  of  a  more  recent  origin 
than  the  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal  of  the 
proper  coal  series ;  it  is  a  mineral  coal  retaining  the 
texture  of  the  wood  from  which  it  was  formed,  and 
burning  with  an  empyreumatic  odor ;  though  inferior 
to  the  true  coal,  it  is,  nevertheless,  an  important  fuel 
in  some  countries  in  default  of  a  better  kind. 

Coal  has  been  used  as  fuel  for  about  three  centuries ; 
but  its  great  value  has  been  demonstrated  only 
with  the  past  fifty  years,  with  the  development  of 
steam  power  in  manufacturing.  Coal  is  found  in 
nearly  every  country;  but  over  four-fifths  of  the 
world's  supply  come  from  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  Germany.  The  output  of  the  United 
States  in  1888  was  145,000,000  tons,  or  nearly  as 
much  as  that  of  Great  Britain,  while  Germany  pro- 
duced half  as  much. .  Undeveloped  coal  areas  are 
known  to  exist  in  China,  Alaska,  Russia,  Turkey, 
Japan,  Brazil,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 


264  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF    WARES. 

COKE. 

Coke  is  obtained  by  the  heating  of  coal  in  ovens,  or 
other  arrangements  where  little  air  is  admitted. 
Caking  coal  is  most  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of 
coke. 

Coke  is  a  hard,  brittle,  porous  solid,  with  a  color 
varying  from  iron  gray  to  blackish  gray,  and  more 
or  less  of  a  metallic  luster,  and  does  not  soil  the  fin- 
gers. It  gives  off  no  smoke  in  burning,  is  of  great 
value  as  a  fuel,  evolving  a  very  large  a  mount  of  heat, 
and  is  used,  not  only  in  locomotive  and  other  fur- 
naces, but  also  in  the  smelting  of  metallic  ores. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Writing  and  Drawing  Materials 

and 
Coloring  Materials. 

GRAPHITE. 

Graphit,  Crayon  noir,  Grafit. 

Graphite  is  a  mineral  which  usually  occurs  in  a 
rough,  scaly  mass.  It  possesses  a  metal  luster  and 
when  marked  reveals  a  shining  line. 

Graphite  consists  of  oxygen,  oxide  of  iron,  clay 
(lime  and  magnesia),  silicon,  and  water.  It  is  a  rare 
mineral,  and  is  mined  only  in  large  quantities  at 
Sonora,  Cal.  (Eureka  mine),  in  this  country.  The 
leading  market  is  London. 

In  England  large  quantities  of  excellent  lead  pencils 
are  manufactured  from  graphite.  The  material  is 
cut  into  the  desired  form  for  this  purpose  and  is  then 
covered  with  cedar  wood.  Though  lately  quantities 
of  graphite  which  have  been  chemically  purified  are 
pressed  into  the  desired  form. 

The  excellent  lead  pencils  of  A.  W.  Faber  are  man- 
ufactured in  Germany  and  imported  in  large  quanti- 
ties. The  best  American  products  are  those  made  of 
American  graphite  by  Dixon.  » 

Good  lead  pencils  must  not  become  soft  in  water 
nor  melt  in  fire.  The  former  shows  that  they  are 

265 


266  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

mixed  with  gum  and  lime  water,  the  latter  that  they 
are  produced  by  the  use  of  shellac,  sulphur,  and  the 
like. 

Artificial  graphite  often  occurs  and  is  sometimes 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  stove  polish.  It  is  pro- 
duced in  the  smelting  furnaces. 

RED    CHALK 

Is  a  mineral  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  of  a  slight 
luster.  It  is  soft  and  mild.  It  consists  of  clay  and 
oxide  of  iron,  and  is  found  in  parts  of  Germany  and 
France. 

Red  chalk  is  used  in  the  production  of  writing  and 
drawing  materials.  It  is  sawed  into  strips  for  this 
purpose  and  packed  into  boxes  to  be  sold  in  this 
form. 

The  fine  red  pencils  are  produced  similarly  to 
the  graphite  pencils.  The  well  known  English  and 
Paris  crayons  are  produced  from  this  material. 

WHITE  CHALK. 

Kreide,  Craie,  Krita. 

Chalk  is  an  earthy  variety  of  lime.  It  is  of  a  white 
color,  opaque  and  very  soft.  It  is  found  in  very 
large  quantities  in  the  mountains  of  Germany,  Po- 
land and  Russia. 

Chalk  is  brought  into  trade  without  any  prepara- 
tion ;  for  this  purpose  a  mass  of  pure  material  i& 
selected. 

Whiting  is  a  fine  grade  of  chalk  which  possesses 
many  designations  in  trade.  It  is  used  especially  for 
painting  and  polishing. 

Whiting  is  thinned  in  lime  water  and  is  converted 
into  prismatic  pieces  which  are  then  termed  crayon, 
and  are  used  as  writing  utensils  upon  blackboards. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WAKES.  267 

BLACK   CHALK. 

The  so-called  black  chalk  is  a  material  containing 
much  oxygen.  It  has  a  bluish  or  grayish  color; 
appears  slightly  lustrous  or  dull.  The  best  black 
chalk  conies  from  Spain,  France,  and  Italy. 

Good  black  chalk  must  not  be  too  hard  to  write 
with  and  free  from  impurities.  Black  chalk  is  either 
cut  into  square  pieces  of  a  considerable  length  or 
powdered,  mixed  with  gum  water,  and  pressed  into 
this  form. 

Black  chalk  must  be  preserved  in  a  damp  place,  for, 
when  thoroughly  dry,  it  becomes  useless  as  a  writing 
material. 

SLATES    AND  SLATE    PENCILS. 

The  common  slates  are  produced  from  a  hard, 
black  slate  of  particular  fineness.  The  raw  slate  is 
split  for  this  purpose  and  is  ground  smooth  with 
sandstone,  and  surrounded  with  wooden  frames. 

Slate  pencils  are  not  produced  from  exactly  the  same 
material  as  slates,  but  rather  from  a  clay  variety  of 
this  material,  which  is  softer  and  can  therefore  be 
used  to  write  upon  the  slate  without  cutting  its  sur- 
face. The  supply  of  slate  pencils  on  the  market  is 
brought  from  Sonneberg,  a  place  in  Germany. 

The  fresh  slate  is  split  into  long  pieces  before  it  is 
dry,  and  the  sticks  are  then  ground  or  scraped  into 
the  desired  form. 

A  brown  slate  pencil  is  brought  from  France. 

LITHOGRAPHIC  STONE. 

The  stones  employed  in  lithography  are  limestones 
of  a  peculiar  variety.  It  is  either  of  a  yellowish  or 
grayish  tint.  Good  lithographic  stone  must  be  free 
from  rents  and  uneven  places,  and  should  be  of  a 
smooth,  uniform  grain. 

These  stones  are  largely  imported  from  Germany. 


268  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Col«rs. 

a.— WHITE  COLORS. 
WHITE    LEAD, 

A  white  color  consisting  of  oxide  of  lead,  oxygen, 
and  -water  in  the  preparation  of  which  various  meth- 
ods are  employed.  By  the  Hollandish  method  lead 
is  placed  in  earthen  pots  and  subjected  to  the  vapors 
of  acetic  acid  in  an  air  impregnated  strongly  with 
oxygen  and  heated  from  30  to  40°  C.,  whereby  it  is 
converted  into  a  mass  of  white  lead.  It  is  then 
formed  into  leaves  or  flakes,  and  is  sold  as  flake- 
white. 

Pure  white  lead  is  an  earthy,  heavy  mass,  which 
possesses  the  property  of  covering  a  large  surface,  on 
which  account  it  is  extensively  used.  One  shortcom- 
ing of  this  material  is  that  the  action  of  the  sulphuric 
gas  in  the  air  causes  it  to  tarnish.  The  white  lead 
of  commerce  is  usually  adulterated  by  means  of  whit- 
ing, gypsum,  and  clay.  Pure  white  lead  is  soluble 
in  nitro-muriatic  acid,  and  this  test  is  advanta- 
geously employed  in  detecting  the  purity  of  the  lead. 

There  are  now  a  number  of  white  lead  manufac- 
tories in  the  United  States ;  in  former  years  the  entire 
supply  was  imported  from  England. 

OXIDE    OF    ZINC 

Is  a  white  color  which  is  equal  to  white  lead  in 
many  particulars  and  is  superior  in  others,  though  it 
does  not  spread  over  the  same  amount  of  surface. 

It  is  prepared  by  burning  zinc ;  the  oxide  which  is 
thus  created  is  also  used. 

Oxide  of  zinc  is  used  in  oil  and  water  colors.  It  is 
poisonous  in  large  quantities,  but  is  used  as  a  medi- 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  269 

cine  in  small  doses  and  has  the  Latin  name  of  Flores 
zenci. 

When  there  is  a  lack  of  air  in  the  production  of 
oxide  of  zinc  the  vapor  burns  very  incompletely,  and 
forms  a  gray  product  known  as  "zinc-gray."  This 
material  is  used  in  paint. 

TALC. 

The  mineral  which  has  this  name  occurs  in  a  rough 
mass  of  a  slight  grayish  tint  and  has  a  leafy  texture. 
It  is  either  transparent  or  translucent,  and  has  the 
appearance  of  mother-of-pearl.  It  is  found  in  various 
mountainous  regions  of  Europe.  It  may  be  con- 
verted into  a  fine  powder,  and  is  used  in  producing 
facial  powders  and  paints  (cosmetics),  to  give  to 
wall  paper  a  satin  finish  and  to  facilitate  the  slipping 
of  footwear  onto  the  foot. 

MINERAL    WHITE. 

Powdered  mineral  white  is  used  in  white  lead,  etc. 
It  is  a  very  fine  powder.  It  is  produced  by  combin- 
ing sulphuric  acid  w  th  mineral  salt.  It  is  purely 
white,  and  does  not  become  thin  in  the  open  air.  Its 
price  is  lower  than  that  of  white  lead.  It  usually 
comes  into  trade  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  and  is  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  tapestry.  It  is  not  very  desir- 
able as  an  oil  color. 

NOTE. — Among  the  other  white  colors  are  whiting, 
pearl-white,  Spanish-white,  white  cosmetic,  and 
bismuth-white . 

b.— YELLOW  COLORS. 
OCHRE. 

Under  the  name  of  ochre  there  are,  in  trade,  several 
yellow,  earthy  substances,  -which  owe  their  color  to 


270  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

a  combination  of  oxide  of  iron  with  water.  The 
most  important  of  the  ochres  is  yellow  earth,  a  min- 
eral of  a  fine  earthy  consistency  composed  of  oxide 
of  iron,  lime,  clay,  and  particles  of  quartz.  It  is  of  a 
yellow  color.  It  comes  into  trade  from  various  parts 
of  Germany  and  France. 

Ochre  proper  is  somewhat  different  from  yellow 
earth. 

By  heating,  the  color  of  the  ochre  is  somewhat 
heightened,  and  is  then  known  as  red  ochre. 

Ochre  is  used  as  a  pigment  in  paints. 

CHROMATE  OF  LEAD 

Is  a  beautiful,  bright  color,  varying  in  shade  from 
lemon  to  a  deep  orange.  It  consists  of  oxide  of  lead 
and  chromate.  It  is  a  poisonous,  odorless,  and 
tasteless  powder,  which  is  insoluble  in  water,  not 
affected  by  light,  and  can  be  readily  mixed  with 
other  colors,  and  is  soluble  in  alkali. 

The  chromate  of  lead  which  occurs  in  trade  is 
mixed  with  gypsum  and  the  like.  Jaune  de  cologne 
is  a  beautiful,  but  poisonous  oil  or  water  color. 

ORPIMENT 

Is  a  beautiful,  but  poisonous  color,  which,  in  its 
pure  state,  contains  sixty-one  parts  of  arsenic,  and 
thirty-nine  parts  pure  sulphur.  It  is  a  mineral,  but  is 
also  artificially  produced. 

Orpiment  is  used  especially  in  coloring  oil  cloth,  in 
preparing  water  colors,  and  for  other  purposes. 

OTHER  YELLOW    COLORS. 

Ultramarine  yellow,  oxide  of  zinc,  orange  (orange 
oxide)  mineral  yellow,  Naples  yellow,  cobalt  yellow, 
are  a  few  additional  yellow  colors  now  in  use. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  271 

c.— RED  COLORS. 
RED  LEAD 

Is  a  scarlet,  heavy,  and  fine  grained  powder,  which 
is  formed  from  a  combination  of  lead  with  oxygen, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  an  oxide  of  lead  or  a  super 
oxide  of  lead.  Red  lead  conies  into  trade  powdered 
or  diluted.  It  is  of  various  shades  of  red,  as  Turkey, 
etc. 

The  production  of  red  lead  is  carried  on  extensively 
in  the  United  States  and  England. 

Red  lead  is  used  in  the  production  of  flint  glass, 
artificial  gems,  etc. 

CINNABAE. 

This  well-known  artists'  material  is  both  a  nat- 
ural and  artificial  product.  The  former  occurs  both 
crystallized  and  rough. 

A  large  part  of  the  cinnabar  is  artificially  produced. 
It  is  prepared  dry  by  rubbing  or  melting  with  quick- 
silver and  sulphur.  The  finest  cinnabar  is  prepared 
by  the  Chinese.  It  is  possibly  prepared  by  the  use  of 
water.  The  cinnabar  prepared  in  this  way  bears  the 
name  vermilion. 

In  addition  to  its  use  in  paints,  cinnabar  is  also 
used  in  coloring  sealing  wax.  In  the  preparation  of 
bright  red  paint,  it  is  mixed  with  sulphur. 

REALGAR 

Is  a  combination  of  seventy  parts  arsenic  and  thirty 
parts  sulphur,  is  a  natural  mineral,  though  some- 
times artificially  produced.  The  natural  product 
occurs  rarely,  and  the  artificial  product  is  yielded 
from  arsenic  and  sulphur. 

The  artificial  product  appears  both  opaque  and 
translucent.  It  has  a  fatty  gloss  and  a  shell-like 


272  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

fracture.  It  is  insoluble  in  water  and  burns  with  a 
blue  flame,  developing  a  strong  odor  of  arsenic  and 
sulphur. 

It  is  sometimes  used  in  printing  calicoes,  though 
commonly  regarded  as  being  too  poisonous  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  used  also  in  removing  the  hair  from 
hides  and  in  producing  fireworks. 


d.— BLUE  COLORS. 
SMALT. 

The  preparation  of  smalt  is  accomplished  by  fusing 

-cobalt  with  quartz,  sand,  and  potash,  which  results 

in  the  production  of  a   deep  blue  glass,   which  is 

ground  into  powder  in  a  paint  mill.      The  powder 

has  various  names  according  to  its  fineness. 

The  most  important  works  for  preparing  smalt  are 
located  in  Saxony. 

These  blue  colors  serve  as  a  bluing  for  linen  and 
cotton  and  as  a  decorative  material. 

Smalt  is  an  excellent  blue  color.  It  shows  equal 
endurance  in  heat  and  dampness,  and  is  not  affected 
by  acids.  It  is  used  largely  in  exterminating  insects 
in  the  sugar  plantations. 

ULTRAMARINE. 

This  color  has  become  famous  by  its  beauty.  It  is 
a  mineral  and  appears  in  rugged  pieces.  It  is  found 
in  China,  Thibet,  and  Siberia. 

The  composition  of  ultramarine  is  of  silicon,  clay, 
sulphur,  sulphuric  acid,  particles  of  iron,  lime, 
etc.  The  three  varieties  of  ultramarine  are :  Sul- 
phate, soda,  and  silicon  ultramarine.  The  first  two 
varieties  have  a  pure  blue  color,  the  latter  has  a  red- 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  273 

dish  tint.  The  sulphate  ultramarine  is  prepared 
after  the  German  process,  by  mixing  clay,  soda,  coal, 
and  sulphur,  and  setting  it  over  a  glowing  fire  in  an 
•earthen  vessel  for  from  seven  to  ten  hours.  The 
glowing  mass  appears  green  when  cool,  and  is 
washed  and  powdered.  A  small  quantity  is  used  as 
a  green  coloring  matter.  In  order  to  change  it  to 
blue,  it  must  be  roasted  in  the  fumes  of  sulphur;  this 
operation  is  repeated  until  the  substance  is  of  an 
intense  blue ;  finally  it  is  ground  and  mixed  with 
water.  Themassis pressed, dried, andsifted.  Itis manu- 
factured in  Germany,  France,  and  Belgium. 

Ultramarine  is  a  delicate  blue  powder.  The  height 
of  its  color  and  the  degree  of  its  fineness  determine  its 
value.  In  water  or  solutions  of  alkali,  it  is  insoluble, 
but  is  soluble  in  acids,  and,  when  thus  dissolved,  it 
develops  sulphuric  water. 

Ultramarine  is  used  in  large  quantities  as  a  wash 
blue  and  in  the  coloring  of  china  ware,  paper,  and  the 
like.  It  has  replaced  other  blue  colors  to  a  large 
extent,  and  the  use  to  which  it  is  placed  comprises 
nearly  all  fields  of  technical  art. 

MOUNTAIN   BLUE. 

The  real  mountain  blue  was  yielded  from  a  natural 
mineral,  but  this  does  not  exist  any  more. 

Mountain  blue  is  yielded  artificially  more  cheaply 
and  of  the  same  quality.  It  is  prepared  from  a 
solution  of  copper. 

When  dried  it  possesses  a  fine,  sky-blue  color.  In 
acid  it  is  soluble,  and  it  turns  red  in  a  glow.  It  is 
poisonous. 

In  France  a  large  part  of  mountain  blue  is  used  by 
wall  paper  manufacturers. 

18 


274  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

e.-GREEN  COLORS. 
GREEN  EARTH 

Is  a  product  of  the  mineral  kingdom,  which  is 
found  in  Italy,  Cypress,  Tyrol,  and  Bohemia. 

The  color  of  this  pigment  varies  in  its  shades.  It  is 
mild  and  fatty. 

In  trade  there  are  the  following  varieties  of  green 
earth:  .Cypress,  Tyrolian,  Bohemian.  It  serves 
especially  in  the  manufacture  of  paints. 

MOUNTAIN   GREEN. 

With  this  name  we  designate  a  poisonous  green, 
paint  color  (carbonic  oxide  of  copper).  Mountain 
green  is  generally  produced  artificially. 

The  green  colors  which  come  into  trade  under  the 
name  of  Brunswick  green  are  of  four  kinds,  and  dif- 
fer slightly  from  mountain  green.  They  consist  of 
oxide  of  copper  (carbonate),  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
contain  arsenic. 

PROTOXIDE  OF   CHROME 

Has  a  dark  green  color,  which  should  be  pure,  but 
is  frequently  mixed  with  lime.  It  is  yielded  by  chro- 
mate  of  calcite  and  sulphur,  and  is  used  in  painting- 
porcelain,  and  as  a  mixture  in  common  paints. 

SCHWEINFURT  GREEN, 

A  much  esteemed  and  beautiful  green  color,  pro- 
duced from  oxide  of  copper.  It  was  discovered  by  a 
German  named  Sattler,  and  is  manufactured  at 
Schweinfurt  and  other  German  cities.  For  the  prepara- 
tion of  these  colors,  there  are  many  receipts.  The 
best  is  the  following :  Dissolve  four  parts  verdigris 
in  vinegar  with  three  parts  white  arsenic;  the  mix- 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  275 

ture  is  then  left  to  evaporate  gradually,  and  the  col- 
oring crystals  will  soon  form. 

The  factory,  in  which  this  coloring  pigment  is  pro- 
duced, manufactures  twenty-five  varieties,  the  major- 
ity being  more  or  less  mixed. 

This  pigment  has  a  pure  emerald  color.  It  is  endur- 
ing in  the  air  and  does  not  change  its  color.  The 
ingredient  of  arsenic  makes  it  very  poisonous.  It  is 
used  in  paints,  stains,  coloring  wall  paper  and  dress 
goods. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  a  few  additional 
green  colors  which  are  imported  in  trade :  Cobalt, 
Carrelman's,  Gentel's,  Scheele's,  victoria,  cinnabar, 
and  ultramarine  green. 

f.— BROWN  COLORS. 
BOLE. 

Bole  is  a  mineral  which  presents  many  variations 
of  brown,  the  majority  of  which  have  a  tinge  of  yel- 
low or  red.  It  possesses  a  regular  form,  splits  read- 
ily, and  has  a  slight  luster.  Silesia  and  Bavaria  have 
extensive  fields  of  this  pigment. 

In  former  times,  bole  was  used  as  medicine,  but  it  is 
now  used  only  as  a  coloring  matter  by  painters  in 
preparing  oil  colors.  It  also  comes  into  trade  burnt 
in  a  brown  color,  and  is  then  known  as  mahogany 
brown. 

UMBER. 

Under  this  name  there  are,  in  trade,  two  species  of 
brown,  namely,  cypress  umber  and  cologne  umber. 

Turkey, 'or  cypress,  umber  comes  into  trade  in  a 
rough  macs,  having  a  fine  earthy  fracture ;  by  burn- 
ing it  takes  on  a  dark  color. 


276  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Cologne  umber  is  taken  from  the  brown  coal  mines, 
located  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cologne,  Germany. 
It  is  formed  into  a  dough  by  the  use  of  water,  and  is 
then  shaped  into  cakes.  A  very  good  brown  is 
yielded  by  adding  potash. 

g—  BLACK  COLORS. 

Graphite  and  slate  belong  under  this  head,  but 
have  been  described  in  a  previous  chapter. 

Iron  bronze  and  blacking  consist  of  antimony,  and 
are  used  in  giving  plaster  of  Paris  figures  the  appear- 
ance of  cast  iron. 

//.—PASTELS 

Are  colored,  round  pencils  which  are  employed  by 
pastel  artists  in  painting  pictures.  They  consist  of 
various  pigments  mixed  with  crayon,  clay,  and  gum 
water.  They  must  be  soft  in  order  that  the  color 
can  readily  be  transferred  to  paper.  They  are  manu- 
factured in  Paris,  Dresden,  and  Lousanne.  They  are 
carefully  packed  in  wool  and  sent  into  trade  assorted 
in  various  colors,  gold,  silver,  and  carmine  being  the 
dearest.  Pastels  are  at  present  but  rarely  used, 
though  the  colored  pencils  made  of  various  materials 
are  better  known.  These  are  produced  similarly  to 
the  ordinary  graphite  pencil.  Oil  crayons  are  pro- 
duced in  Niirnberg,  Germany. 

GOLD,    SILVER,    AND    BRONZE    COLORS. 

Among  these  are  the  gold,  silver,  and  bronze  pow- 
ders as  well  as  the  jet,"  brocade,  crystalline  substan- 
ces, and  the  like. 

a. — Real  gold  bronze  (shell  gold)  appears  in  the 
form  of  very  fine  powders,  which  are  obtained  from 
the  refuse  of  gold-leaf,  and  used  largely  for  decora- 
tive purposes. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  277 

Real  silver  bronze  is  obtained  from  the  refuse  of 
the  metal. 

b. — Mosaic  (artificial  gold  bronze)  is  a  chemical 
combination  of  sulphur  and  tin.  In  its  preparation 
various  receipts  are  employed.  A  good  mosaic  is 
yielded  from  one  part  tin,  one  of  sulphur,  and  one  of 
sal  ammonia  which  is  heated  with  or  without  mer- 
cury until  it  glows  slightly.  It  consists  of  small 
semi-transparent  flakes.  By  mixing  it  with  glue,  a 
bronze  paint  is  formed. 

c. — Bronze  powders  occur  in  trade  under  various 
names,  according  to  their  tints :  Light  yellow,  lemon, 
high  yellow,  orange,  carmine,  copper,  red,  violet, 
green,  and  white.  The  yellow  colors  consist  of  cop- 
per and  zinc,  and  contain  no  tin.  The  red  tints  are 
produced  from  copper  and  the  white  from  zinc.  The 
large  grained  bronzes  are  termed  brocades.  The 
various  shades  of  yellow  are  yielded  by  heating  the 
powders  to  various  degrees. 

Bronze  powder  is  produced  in  Niirnberg,  Furth,  and 
Paris,  and  is  widely  used  in  printing  books,  wall 
paper,  oil  cloth,  etc. 

Brocade  crystal  colors  are  surrogates  for  metal 
bronzes.  They  are  yielded  by  powdering  jet.  The 
jet  bronzes  consist  of  scaly  powder,  and  possess  a 
strong  luster. 

The  majority  of  these  products  have  only  a  limited 
use,  especially  on  account  of  their  high  price. 


CHAPTER  VI. 
Mineral  Acids.* 

By  acid  is  meant  all  substances  which  are  possessed 
of  a  sour  taste  and  the  ability  to  turn  blue  litmus 
red.  This  property  is  also  possessed  by  alum,  tar- 
tar, etc.  It  satisfies  the  so-called  bases,  and  com- 
bines with  them  to  form  salts.  Some  acids  are  pro- 
cured from  the  mineral  kingdom  and  are  distin- 
guished from  the  acid  yielded  by  the  animal  or  vege- 
table products,  i.  e.,  organic  acids;  e.  g.,  vinegar  and 
lemon. 

The  mineral  acids  of  commerce  are  both  fluid  and 
solid ;  they  may  be  sharp  or  mild. 

SULPHURIC    ACID. 

Schwefelsaure,  Acide  sulpbttrique,  Swafvelsyra. 

In  trade  there  are  three  kinds  of  acids  of  this 
nature,  namely,  oil  of  vitriol,  sulphureted  hydrogen, 
common  sulphuric  acid. 

Oil  of  vitriol  is  yielded  by  distilling  pure  blue  vitriol. 
This  acid  is  sometimes  called  Nordhausen,  as  it  traces 
its  origin  to  this  city  in  Germany.  It  is  used  especi- 
ally by  dyers  in  dissolving  indigo,  and  is  preferred 
for  this  purpose  to  common  acid. 

*In  testing  acids  various  devices  are  employed,  and  among  these  are 
twaddle,  an  aerometer  used  in  England,  also  the  alkali-meter  and 
Descroizilles.  Excellent  instruction  for  testing  acids  is  given  in  "Mohr'a 
Method  of  Chemical  Analysis"  and  "Handbook  of  Technical  Chem- 
istry," by  E.  Fleischer. 

278 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  279 

Sulphurated  hydrogen,  which  has  recently  come 
into  trade,  is  a  solid  mass  composed  of  white  crys- 
tals ;  they  are  sent  out  in  strong  tin  boxes,  and  are 
used  in  the  production  of  aniline  dyes.  When  a  lit- 
tle water  is  added  the  mixture  is  heated  to  vSuch  an 
extent  that  a  cushion  of  steam  is  formed  which 
explodes.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  use  particular 
care  in  mixing  this  substance  with  \vater. 

The  common  or  English  sulphuric  acid  is  yielded  by 
burning  sulphur  and  sal  ammonia  in  one  stream  of 
air,  and  permitting  the  vapors  to  mingle.  The  fumes 
are  caught  in  a  leaden  case,  and,  with  the  steam 
arising  from  water,  it  settles  and  forms  thin  sulphuric 
acid. 

This  kind  of  sulphuric  acid  is  produced  by  many 
chemical  manufactories,  and  is  sent  out  in  glass 
balloons  which  are  packed  into  baskets  surrounded 
by  straw.  This  mixture  is  used  in  preparing  dyna- 
mite and  in  purifying  petroleum. 

These  three  sulphuric  acids  should  be  handled  care- 
fully. When  taken  internally,  they  act  as  a  poison. 
When  thinned  with  much  water  they  have  a  sour 
taste. 

English  sulphuric  acid  constitutes  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  chemicals  of  commerce.  Its  use  extends 
over  a  wide  field  of  technical  chemistry,  and  includes 
the  preparation  of  muriatic  acid,  soda,  chlorides, 
phosphorus,  paramne,  etc. 

NITRIC    ACID. 

Saltpetersaure,  Acidc  nitrique,  Saltpetersyra. 

Nitric  acid  in  its  water-free  condition  is  composed 
of  two  gases,  nitrogen  and  oxygen,  in  proportion  of 
about  one  third  of  the  former  to  two-thirds  of  the 
latter.  The  concentrated  nitric  acid  is  a  colorless, 
stringent  acid  of  a  peculiar  odor,  which  develops 


280  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

smoke  when  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  atmos- 
phere, and  discolors  organic  substances  which  con- 
tain nitrogen.  The  metals,  excepting  gold  and  plati- 
num, are  oxidized  by  nitric  acid,  and  issue  a  red 
smoke. 

The  nitric  acid  which  occurs  in  trade  under  the 
name  of  aqua  fortis  is  of  two  kinds,  single  and 
double. 

The  common  aqua  fortis  is  adulterated  either  with 
salicylic  acid  or  sulphuric  acid.  The  first  results 
from  the  addition  of  common  salt. 

Under  the  name  of  red  fuming  nitric  acid,  there  is 
in  trade  a  yellow,  or  fire  red,  nitric  acid.  It  is  a  mix- 
ture'of  nitric  acid  with  under  nitric  acid,  and  is  still 
more  oxidizing  than  pure  nitric  acid.  It  is  sent  into 
trade  in  glass  balloons  or  earthen  flasks. 

Nitric  acid  is  used  especially  in  dissolving  metals, 
and  thus  forms  nitrate  ot  silver,  which  is  much  used  in 
photography.  Nitrate  of  iron  is  used  as  a  black  dye. 
Nitrate  of  mercury  is  employed  inthemakingof  hats. 
It  is  also  used  in  coloring  brass,  in  the  preparation  of 
dextrin,  gums,  gun-cotton,  nitro-glycerine,  etc. 

MURIATIC    ACID. 

Salzsaure,  Acidc  muriatique. 

Muriatic  acid  is  yielded  by  distilling  100  parts  com- 
mon salt  with  168  parts  sulphur.  Thereby  the  acid 
develops  in  the  form  of  gas. 

The  pure  muriatic  acid  is  colorless,  smells  pleasant, 
and  emits,  when  open,  a  white  asphyxiating  gas. 
Its  taste  is  strongly  sour.  The  raw  acid  generally 
contains  oxide  of  iron,  and  therefore  possesses  a  yel- 
low color.  It  also  contains  some  arsenic,  and  smells 
and  tastes  more  unpleasant  than  the  pure  acid. 

Muriatic  acid  is  generally  received  from  the  soda 
factory,  where  it  is  yielded  as  a  secondary  product. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  281 

The  transportation  takes  place  in  glass  or  earthen 
balloons.  Pure  muriatic  acid  is  also  supplied  by 
manufacturing  chemists. 

Muriatic  acid  finds  a  wide  field  of  usefulness  in 
technical  chemistry;  e.  g.,  in  the  preparation  of 
sugar,  chloride  of  lime,  sal  ammonia,  etc. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Mineral  Salts. 

Salts  are  substances  which  consist  of  an  acid  and  a 
base,i.  e.,  a  substance  which,  combined  with  acid,  neu- 
tralizes the  latter  and  forms  salt;  e.  g.,  an  alkali,  an 
earth,  a  metal  oxide.  Some  salts  are  soluble  and 
others  are  insoluble,  or  only  partly  soluble  in  water. 
Many  crystalline  salts  are  chemically  combined  with 
water.  When  these  are  heated  to  100°  C.,  the  water 
escapes  and  the  crystals  change  to  powder.  Many 
salts  lose  their  watery  contents  by  contact  with  the 
air.  Most  of  the  salts  which  occur  in  trade  have 
been  described  in  the  chapter  on  colors,  and  only 
such  are  added  as  have  not  been  previously 
explained. 

a.— SULPHATES. 

GLAUBERS    SALT, 

Glauberealz,   Sel  de   Glauber,    GlaubersaH?, 

Consists  of  potash,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water,  and 
is  a  colorless,  transparent,  crystalline  salt.  Its  taste 
is  bitter  and  cooling.  In  dry  air  the  crystals  yield  up 
their  water  and  are  converted  into  a  dry  powder. 
This  salt  is  soluble  in  eight  parts  of  cold  water,  or  in 
less  than  that  quantity  of  hot  water. 

282 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  283 

Glaubers  salt  is  found  largely  to  constitute  one  of 
the  ingredients  of  mineral  water,  and  is  obtained  by 
freezing  the  latter  which  causes  the  salt  to  concen- 
trate and  crystallize.  In  addition  it  is  yielded  in 
soda  factories.  It  is  procured  largely  from  saline  and 
chemical  factories. 

In  medicine  it  is  used  as  a  laxative,  and  in  the  pro- 
duction of  glass  and  soda. 

Glass-gall  is  a  mixture  of  various  salts  which  are 
skimmed  from  the  surface  of  molten  glass.  It 
traces  its  origin  to  the  salts  and  potash  employed  in 
smelting  which  do  not  combine  with  ore  glass. 

EPSOM  SALT, 

Bittersalz.   Selamer,    Bittersalt, 

Is  also  termed  bitter  salt,  seidlitz  salt,  or  Eng- 
lish salt.  It  consists  of  magnesia,  sulphuric  acid,  and 
water. 

Generally  it  occurs  in  small,  colorless,  and  trans- 
parent pointed  crystals,  which  are  damp.  The  crys- 
tals are  bitter,  salty,  and  odorless  when  diluted, 
which  is  easily  accomplished  by  means  of  warm 
water.  It  reacts  neutral. 

It  is  yielded  partially  by  the  neutral  bitter  water 
from  minerals  containing  magnesia,  from  sea  water, 
and  otherwise. 

Epsom  salt  is  used  especially  in  medicines  and  to 
saturate  light,  inflammable  cloths,  as  muslin  and 
tarletan.  When  thus  saturated,  cloths  charr,  but 
cannot  become  enflamed  when  ignited. 

ALUM. 

Alziun,    Alun,   Alun. 

There  are  several  of  these  salts  known  both  to 
trade  and  to  chemistry.  They  consist  of  sulphuric 
acid,  clay,  alkali,  and  water. 


284  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WAKES. 

The  alkali  may  be  ammonia. 

Alum  is  rarely  found  completely  formed  in  nature. 
Most  alum  is  artificially  produced  by  the  use  of  vari- 
ous minerals.  The  latter  sometimes  contain  alum  in 
a  considerable  quantity. 

According  to  the  various  minerals  used,  the  nature 
of  the  alums  produced  varies.  The  following  are  the 
features  of  the  varieties: 

1.  Potash  alum,  from  9.95  potash,  10.85  clay, 
33.71  sulphuric  acid,  45.51  water. 

When  heated  to  a  high  degree  alum  forms  a  spongy, 
white  mass  termed  burnt  alum. 

2.  Ammonia    alum   consists    of    3.75    ammonia, 
11.34  clay,  35.29  sulphuric  acid,  49.62  water. 

3.  Natron  alum  is  similar  to  the  former  in  appear- 
ance, and  consists  of  6.80  natron,  11.21  clay,  34.89 
sulphuric  acid,  47.10  water. 

In  dry  air  the  crystals  wither.  It  is  very  soluble 
in  water. 

In  trade  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  the  origin 
of  the  various  alums.  Potash  and  ammonia  alum 
are  equally  valuable  for  technical  purposes,  though 
natron  alum  is  very  inferior  to  these  in  quality. 

The  value  of  alum  is  dependent  upon  its  purity  and 
freedom  from  iron.  Even  the  best  varieties  frequently 
contain  small  quantities  of  oxide  of  iron,  which  is 
also  crystallized,  and  therefore  not  easily  perceived. 

Of  the  varieties  which  occur  in  trade,  the  Roman 
alum  deserves  special  attention.  It  is  a  cubical, 
crystallized  potash  alum  which  is  yielded  from  the 
alum-stone  at  Tolfa  and  Toscona.  It  comes  in 
crystallized  pieces  bearing  a  mixture  of  oxide  of  iron 
and  an  outer  coating  of  flour.  When  diluted  in 
water  the  reddish  oxide  forms  a  sediment,  and  the 
alum  becomes  pure;  it  is  therefore  preferred,  and 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  285 

commands  a  high  price.  Roman  alum  comes  from 
Civita,  Livurno,  and  Marseilles. 

The  Turkish  alum  is  very  similar  to  the  Roman 
variety. 

The  French  alum  is  partially  ammonia  alum  ;  it  is 
sold  in  barrels  of  from  400  to  500  pounds. 

In  Hungary  the  salt  works  furnish  an  excellent 
variety  of  alum. 

The  use  of  alum  is  very  extensive.  Its  application 
in  dyeing,  tanning,  paper  manufacturing,  medicine, 
and  the  like,  is  well  known. 

Chromate  of  alum  comes  into  trade  in  small  quan- 
tities. It  is  a  mixture  of  several  salts.  It  is  used 
especially  in  dyeing  as  a  black  coloring  pigment,  also 
in  the  preparation  of  ink,  in  dissolving  lime  and  gunv 
and  in  the  production  of  chromate  of  potash. 

GREEN  VITRIOL.      (COPPERAS.) 
Eiseavitriol,  Sulfale  ferreux.  Jernvitriol. 

Vitriols  are  generally  combinations  of  sulphuric 
acids  with  several  m«tal  oxides.  These  are  the  iron, 
copper,  and  zinc  vitriols  of  trade. 

Green  vitriol  (iron)  consists  of  25.90  oxide  of  iron, 
28.78  sulphuric  acid,  45.32  water. 

It  is  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  trade. 

In  its  pure  state,  it  is  of  a  faded,  bluish-green  color. 
The  article  of  commerce  is  frequently  grass  green  or 
of  a  yellowish  tinge,  which  is  regulated  by  its  con- 
tents of  iron.  Pure  oxide  of  iron  forms  transparent 
crystals.  In  the  air  it  discolors  on  the  outside,  and 
is  very  soluble  in  water. 

Green  vitriol  is  produced  in  vitriol  works  which 
occur  in  almost  every  country.  Sulphuric  silicon  is 
employed  in  its  production.  The  substances  are 
roasted  or  withered  in  the  sun. 


286  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

.Good  vitriol  is  dry,  bluish-green  (sea-green),  has  no 
rind,  and  is  preferred  in  large  pieces.  Most  of  the 
green  vitriol  is  impure. 

Green  vitriol  is  packed  into  wooden  barrels,  100 
pounds  in  each. 

Green  vitriol  is  used  in  large  quantities.  It  serves 
especially  in  dyeing  cloth,  felt,  and  leather  black,  and 
is  used  in  the  printing  of  calicoes  generally,  as  well  as 
in  the  preparation  of  ink.  In  photography,  a  mix- 
ture of  green  vitriol  and  sulphurate  of  ammonia  are 
used  in  developing  pictures. 

BLUE   VITRIOL. 

Blauer  Vitriol,  Vitriol  Bleu,  Blaa  Vitriol. 

Blue  vitriol  is  a  combination  of  31.80  oxide  of  cop- 
per, 32.08  sulphuric  acid,  36.12  water. 

It  is  yielded  from  sulphite  of  copper,  which  is  arti- 
ficially prepared,  or  occurs  natural  as  silicated  cop- 
per. The  blue  lye  which  is  yielded  is  placed  in  a  pan 
with  many  pieces  of  wood  on  which  the  crystals  will 
form.  The  purest  vitriol  attaches  itself  to  the  ver- 
tical pieces.  The  blue  vitriol  is  obtained  in  large 
quantities  from  the  quartz  surrounding  various 
metals. 

Blue  vitriol  crystallizes  in  blue,  square,  transparent 
tablets.  It  possesses  an  unpleasant,  metallic  taste. 
One  hundred  parts  of  water  at  20°  C.  will  dissolve 
twenty-two  parts  of  vitriol.  Good  blue  vitriol  must 
be  dry,  clear,  possessed  of  large  crystals,  and  be  free 
from  iron.  In  order  to  test  it  in  the  latter  particular, 
it  should  be  dissolved  in  \vater  and  cooked  in  a  small 
quantity  of  salicylic  acid.  Should  the  entire  massdis- 
sol  ve  so  as  to  form  a  clear  blue  liquid,the  test  proves  the 
purity  of  the  mineral.  Sulphuric  acid  is  also  fre- 
quently contained  in  vitriol,  and  this  is  determined 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  287 

by  pouring  a  quantity  of  the  mixture  on  paper,  the 
sulphuric  acid  readily  eating  into  this  material. 

Blue  vitriol  is  used  extensively  in  the  production 
and  fabrication  of  many  blue  and  green  colors.  It  is 
also  used  to  impregnate,  thus  shielding  it  against 
rot,  and  in  softening  kernels  of  wheat  before  sow- 
ing them. 

ROMAN   VITRIOL. 

Adlervitriol,   Vitriol  de  Salzbourg,  Adlervitriol. 

This  name  is  applied  to  several  blue  and  green  vit- 
riols which  are  composed  of  a  mixture  of  various 
kinds  of  vitriol.  The  mixture  varies  considerably, 
and  its  value  is  dependent  upon  the  quantity  of  cop- 
per it  contains. 

Corresponding  with  its  contents  of  copper,  this 
vitriol  has  various  brands,  which  are  usually  stamped 
into  the  barrel  containing  the  article.  They  are 
Roman  1,  Roman  2,  Roman  3,  vitriol. 

This  vitriol  comes  into  trade  in  a  crystallized  mass, 
or  in  small  tablets ;  also  in  small,  broken  pieces.  The 
first  variety  is  preferred. 

Its  use  is  confined  largely  to  dyeing. 

WHITE  VITRIOL. 
Ziakritriol,  Vitriol  blanc,  Zinkvitriol. 

In  its  pure  state  this  vitriol  consists  of  28.07  oxide 
of  zinc,  27.93  sulphuric  acid,  44  water. 

It  forms  long  water-colored  crystals,  which  are 
easily  dissolved  in  water,  and  wither  in  dry  air. 

Pure  white  vitriol  is  produced  in  several  chemical 
manufactories,  for  medicinal  purposes,  though  the 
article  of  trade  is  generally  impure. 

It  is  used  in  preparing  a  light,  dry  varnish,  a  disin- 
fectant, and  sometimes  in  the  printing  of  calicoes. 


288  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF    WARES. 

£.— NITRATES. 

y 

SALTPETER. 

Salpeter,    titrate   de  potasse.    Saltpeter. 

Saltpeter  is  sometimes  found  to  be  a  completely 
formed  mineral,  and  in  its  true  state  it  is  known  as 
nitrate  potassium.  Sometimes  it  is  found  attached 
to  the  damp  walls  of  old  ruins  in  the  form  of  a  hairy, 
white  coat.  It  is  found  especially  in  the  caves  of 
some  of  the  tropical  countries,  e.  g.,  India,  Bengal, 
Ceylon,  and  Ecuador,  and  also  in  the  upper  layers 
of  the  earth.  It  is  formed  by  the  slow  decomposition 
of  organic  matter  in  dry  air. 

Saltpeter  is  also  artificially  produced  in  various 
countries,  particularly  in  France,  Sweden,  and  Aus- 
tria. For  this  purpose  a  mixture  of  soil,  ashes,  and 
lime  are  heaped  up  and  permitted  to  remain  thus  for 
several  years ;  occasionally  a  quantity  of  l}re  is  poured 
over  the  mixture,  and  it  is  thoroughly  stirred.  After 
several  years  the  organic  matter  will  have  under- 
gone decomposition,  and  will  then  have  partially 
formed  saltpeter,  which  is  obtained  by  dissolving  the 
matter  in  water. 

The  saltpeter,  whichever  way  it  is  yielded,  is  dis- 
solved in  hot  water  and  is  thus  clarified  and  refined. 
The  fine  crystal  powder  occurs  in  a  very  pure  state, 
and  is  extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gun 
powder. 

Pure  saltpeter  consists  of  potash,  46.64 ;  nitric  acid, 
53.36. 

It  forms  six-sided,  conical  prisms  which  have  a  bit- 
ing, bitter  taste.  They  are  odorless,  and  are  quite 
soluble  in  cold  though  much  more  so  in  hot  water. 
In  heat  saltpeter  melts  into  an  oily  fluid.  When 
cooled  it  solidifies  into  a  hard,  white  mass  which 
possesses  a  steely  fracture. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  289 

The  varieties  which  occur  in  trade  differ  greatly  in 
parity.  The  preferable  variety  is  the  Indian  salt- 
peter; the  crystals  of  this  s-pecie  have  a  light  bluish 
tint.  The  American  saltpeter  has  a  yellowish  tint, 
and  from  20  to  25  per  cent  of  the  substance  is  com- 
posed of  chloride  of  lime  and  salt. 

Saltpeter  is  u^-ed  especially  in  preparing  gun  powder 
and,  small  quantities,  in  preserving  meat,  and  for 
various  pharmaceutical  purposes. 

NITRATE    OF    SODA. 

Salpetersaures,  Natron,   Nitrate  dc  soude,  Saltpetersyradt  natron. 

It  contains  in  its  pure  state,  nitrate,  36.6;  nitric 
acid,  63.4. 

This  mineral  is  found  especially  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Yquique,  Chili,  and  in  Bolivia  and  Peru.  This  salt 
comes  into  trade  in  large  quantities  under  the  name 
of  Chili  saltpeter.  It  is  a  crystalline  substance  of  a 
brown  color,  and  is  usually  slightly  moist.  It  is  gen- 
erally clarified  in  Chili  before  it  is  sent  out  in  trade. 
The  mother-lye,  which  is  yielded,  is  manufactured 
into  iodine.  Nitrate  of  soda  can  be  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  saltpeter,  and  is  also  used  in  the  produc- 
tion of  glass. 

GUNPOWDER. 

Schieszpulver,  Poudre  a  tirer,  Krut. 

We  add  the  article  of  gunpowder  to  the  nitrates, 
as  its  most  important  ingredient  is  saltpeter. 

As  commonly  known,  gunpowder  consists  of  salt- 
peter, sulphur,  and  coal. 

Its  production  takes  place  in  a  powder  mill,  where 
the  sulphur  and  coal  are  separately  crushed  until 
they  are  fine,  and  are  then  thoroughly  mixed.  The 
moistened  mass  is  then  firmly  pressed  into  cakes.  It 

19 


290  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

is  powdered,  polished,  thoroughly  dried,  and  freed 
from  dust. 

The  combination  of  the  ingredients  of  gunpowder 
is  as  follows:  Saltpeter,  6  parts ;  sulphur,!  part; 
coal,  1  part. 

Blasting  powder  contains  but  66  per  cent  of  salt- 
peter, which  tends  to  make  it  more  enduring. 

In  the  preparation  of  coal  for  the  manufacture  of 
powder,  linden,  earl,  poplar,  or  hazel  wood  are  used. 
The  sulphur  used  is  in  the  form  of  stick  or  flower  of 
sulphur ;  the  saltpeter  must  be  free  from  chloride. 

The  quality  of  powder  is  largely  dependent  upon 
the  coal  from  which  it  is  made,  and  the  purity  of  the 
saltpeter. 

A  light  powder  burns  too  rapidly  and  lacks  explo- 
sive force.  It  also  gathers  moisture  more  rapidly, 
and  is  more  readily  converted  into  dust.  A  very 
heavy  powder  ignites  too  slowly.  Its  specific  weight 
should  be  about  1.7.  Powder  of  a  cornered  grain 
ignites  more  easily,  while  round  powder  may  be 
handled  with  less  care.  Fine  grained  powder  is  most 
effective  as  ammunition  for  firearms. 

Common  gunpowder  is  sent  out  in  iron  or  wooden 
kegs.  Powder  must  be  .handled  with  the  utmost 
care.  In  stepping  into  a  magazine  in  which  powder 
is  kept,  too  much  care  cannot  be  observed,  as  sud- 
den jars  by  contact  or  scratches  of  steel  instruments 
upon  powder  tend  to  ignite  the  material  and  cause 
it  to  explode. 

The  magazines  must  be  kept  dry  and  be  frequently 
aired  during  dry  weather  as  powder  is  much  inclined 
to  attract  moisture.  Lime  is  also  brought  into  them 
from  time  to  time  to  remove  dampness.  Powder 
which  has  absorbed  moisture  changes  its  color  and 
becomes  lumpy.  This  can  frequently  be  remedied  by 
drying  the  powder  in  the  sun. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  291 

Good  powder  must  possess  a  slate  color,  must  not 
discolor  with  age,  and  its  grains  must  be  uniform ;  on 
a  polished  copper  plate,  when  burned,  it  must  not 
leave  a  residue. 

In  the  last  decade  various  substitutes  have 
appeared  for  gun  and  blasting  powder;  among  these 
explosives  there  are  the  following:  Nitro  starch, 
Nobel's  blasting  oil  or  nitro-glycerine,  dynamite, 
dualin,  lithofracteur,  pickrat  powder,  and  gun-cot- 
ton. 

Very  recently  a  smokeless  powder  has  been  in  vented 
by  a  German,  though  the  manner  of  its  preparation 
is  kept  a  profound  secret  by  the  German  govern- 
ment. 

Nitro-glycerine  is  an  extraordinary  explosive  com- 
bination of  nitrate  of  potassium  and  glycerine. 
Dynamite  is  a  combination  of  nitro-glycerine  and 
infusorial  earth,  sawdust,  etc.  Dualin,  palein,  litho- 
fracteur are  similarly  produced.  They  find  a  wide 
use  as  explosives.  In  blasting  the  rocks  in  the  East 
River,  near  New  York,  in  September,  1876,  48,000 
pounds  of  dynamite  were  used;  in  the  second  attempt, 
Oct.  10,  1885,  280,000  pounds  of  blasting  material 
were  used,  one-third  dynamite,  and  two-thirds  racka- 
rock,  i.  e.,  a  mixture  of  chromate  of  potash  and  bini- 
trobinzol. 

c.— CHLORIDES. 
COMMON   SALT. 

Kochsalz,   Sel  gemme,  Koksalt. 

The  general  outer  appearance  of  salt  is  commonly 
known.  In  its  pure  state,  it  is  composed  of  colorless 
crystals,  and  is  made  up  of  chloride  60.4,  and  nitrate 
39.6. 


292  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Pure  salt  does  not  become  moist  in  the  open  air,  nor 
wiH  it  wither,  though  common  salt  is  generally 
impure. 

According  to  their  origin,  there  are  three  kinds  of 
salt,  namely,  rock  salt,  sea  salt,  and  spring  salt. 

Rock  salt  forms  large  layers  in  the  earth  and  is 
mined  therefrom.  It  is  yielded  in  the  United  States 
and  in  various  European  countries. 

Rock  salt  appears  in  the  form  of  red,  gray,  yellow, 
white,  or  greenish  crystals ;  these  are  either  wholly 
or  semi-transparent.  The  transparent,  colorless 
crystal  rock  salt  is  valued  most  highly. 

Rock  salt  is  used  largely  as  a  part  of  the  food  of 
animals  and  in  the  manufacture  of  soda. 

Sea  salt  is  yielded  from  sea  water.  This  pur- 
suit is  carried  on  especially  on  the  shores  of  the  Med- 
iterranean and  the  Atlantic,  in  France,  Spain,  and 
Russia,  and  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

It  is  used  either  in  its  ordinary  state  or  refined. 
The  color  of  this  salt  is  either  white  or  reddish.  It  is 
coarse,  and  contains  several  per  cent  of  foreign  sub- 
stances. Its  colors  are  white,  half-white,  and  gray. 

The  springs  which  issue  from  the  beds  of  rock  salt 
are  usually  highly  saline.  The  method  of  yielding 
the  salt  varies  according  to  the  saline  contents  of 
the  liquid. 

When  the  brine  is  very  rich  in  salt  and  contains  16 
per  cent  or  more  of  the  mineral,  it  is  placed  in  a  vessel 
and  subjected  to  heat  until  the  water  has  all  evapo- 
rated ;  the  salt  thus  settles  to  the  bottom  of  the  ves- 
sel. It  is  then  shoveled  out  and  dried.  The  impuri- 
ties in  the  salt  attach  themselves  to  the  sides  of  the 
evaporating  pan.  Various  names  are  applied  to  the 
salt  of  the  market,  but  fineness  is  an  essential  quality 
in  good  table  salt. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  293 

Salt  is  brought  into  trade  in  barrels,  though  the 
very  fine  dair\'  salt  is  also  placed  in  sacks. 

Salt  is  much  used  in  arts  and  manufactures,  and  in 
the  preservation  of  foods,  especially  fish  and  meats. 
This  mineral  is  so  abundant  and  widely  distributed 
that  it  plays  an  important  part  in  commerce.  The 
world's  product  is  7,000,000  tons  a  year.  Of  this 
Great  Britain  furnishes  the  most,  and  is  followed  by 
the  United  States,  India,  Germany,  and  Russia.  We 
import  about  $1,000,000  worth  of  salt  annually, 
chiefly  from  England  and  Italy.  Our  yearly  con- 
sumption of  this  mineral  is  over  1,000.000  tons. 

Bromide,  much  used  in  photography,  is  yielded 
from  the  mother-lye  of  salt ;  especially  in  Virginia,.. 
Ohio,  and  Pennsylvania. 

Salt  also  yields  chloride  of  lime,  chloride  of  mag- 
nesia, etc. 

In  our  country  the  most  important  salt  wells  are 
in  Syracuse,  New  York,  and  Saginaw,  Michigan. 

MURIATE    OF  TIN, 

Zinnsalz,  Set  d'etain,  Teansalt, 

Is  a  combination  which  is  yielded  by  dissolving 
ground  zinc  in  muriatic  acid  and  permitting  the 
solution  to  crystallize.  In  its  pure  state,  it  forms  a 
colorless  mass  of  transparent  crystals  having  a  dis- 
agreeable taste,  but  no  odor.  Its  solution  has  a 
milky  appearance,  though  it  becomes  clear  by  the 
addition  of  muriatic  acid  or  ammonia. 

The  muriate  of  tin  which  occurs  in  trade  is  impure. 

This  salt  finds  its  field  of  usefulness  in  dyeing  stuffs 
scarlet.  It  must  be  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
air. 

Chloride  of  tin  is  produced  by  dissolving  muriate 
of  tin  in  aqua  regia. 


294  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Pink  and  rose  salts  are  the  combination  of  chloride 
of  tin  with  ammonia.  They  are  used  in  dyeing  and 
printing  cloths. 

SAL    AMMONIA, 

Salmiak,   Sel  ammoniac,   Salmiak, 

Is  a  combination  of  ammonia  and  muriatic  acid. 
In  former  times,  sal  ammonia  was  yielded  in  Egypt 
from  the  dung  of  camels. 

Sal  ammonia  is  prepared  from  carbonate  of  ammo- 
nia, yielded  from  animal  matter  by  dry  distillation, 
satiated  with  muriatic  acid  or  by  distilling  the  gase- 
ous water  with  lime,  and  gathering  the  escaping 
ammonia  in  sulphuric  acid  and  combining  the  sul- 
phurate of  ammonia  with  common  salt ;  thus  secur- 
ing sal  ammonia  and  bi-carbonate  of  soda. 

Pure  sal  ammonia,  crystallized  from  its  watery 
solution,  is  colorless,  flexible,  and  light.  It  appears 
in  a  cubical  or  trapezoidal  form.  It  possesses  a 
strong  biting  taste,  dissolves  in  cold  water,  and 
evaporates  entirely  in  boiling  water. 

The  sal  ammonia  of  commerce  is  either  crystallized 
or  sublimated.  The  sublimated  sal  ammonia  is  pre- 
ferred ;  it  has  the  form  of  loaves,  and  a  white  or  gray 
color. 

Sal  ammonia  flour  is  the  uncrystallized  purified  sal 
ammonia. 

Sal  ammonia  is  used  by  tinners,  chemists,  and 
apothecaries. 

Chloride  of  calcium  is  a  side  product  of  sal  ammo- 
nia. It  comes  into  trade  in  the  form  of  a  hard, 
porous,  gray  mass.  It  is  employed  in  chemistry  for 
drying  gases  and  extr  acting  water  from  coal.  Lately 
it  has  been  used  as  a  fireproof  paint  for  woodwork. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  295 

J.—CHLORIDE    ACID    SALTS. 

CHLORIDE    OF    LIME. 

Chlorkalk,    Chlorure  de  cbaux,    Cblorkalk. 

Chloride  of  lime  is  prepared  in  large  quantities  by- 
pouring  dry  chloride  over  lime,  which  contains  at 
least  8  per  cent  of  moisture.  The  lime  is  usually 
spread  out  on  stone  and  subjected  to  the  action  of 
chloride,  until  the  latter  ceases  to  have  any  effect. 

Chloride  of  lime  is  a  firmly  packed,  white  or  gray- 
ish, dustless  powder. 

In  the  air,  chloride  of  lime  absorbs  moisture  and 
gives  off  carbonic  acid.  It  should  be  preserved  in 
opaque,  air  tight  packages,  as  the  action  of  the  light 
and  air  tends  to  injure  its  quality. 

In  water  it  is  partially  soluble.  The  solution  of 
chloride  of  lime  is  an  effective  disinfectant,  and 
bleaches  all  vegetable  colors. 

The  chloride  of  lime  which  occurs  in  trade  is  of  a 
various  consistency,  and  its  condition  can  only  be 
ascertained  by  chemical  analysis. 

The  combinations  of  chloric  acids  with  oxide  of 
zinc,  clay,  and  magnesia,  have  lately  been  employed  in 
bleaching  paper,  though  it  does  not  constitute  an 
article  of  trade. 

OXYMURIATE  OF  POTASH, 
Cttlorsaures  Kali,  Chlorate  de  petasse,  Chlorsyre  Kali, 

Is  combination  of  potash  with  chloric  acid,  or 
instead  of  potash  a  mixture  of  potash  and  lime. 

Oxymuriate  of  potash  has  the  form  of  pearly  petals, 
of  a  cool,  unpleasant  taste.  It  does  not  change  in 
the  air,  and  is  soluble  in  cold  water. 

Oxymuriate  of  potash  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
several  varieties  of  matches  and  colored  fireworks, 
also  in  destroying  organic  matter. 


29C  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

e.— BORATE. 

BORAX 

Is  salt  consisting  of  natron,  16.35 ;  boric  acidr 
47.17. 

Formerly  it  was  imported  exclusively  from  Thibet 
and  Japan,  being  found  on  the  coast  of  seas.  It  ispuri- 
fiedby  refining  in  Holland.  Bolivia  and  Chili  furnish 
borax  which  is  prepared  in  the  United  States  and 
England. 

Borax  is  found  in  six-sided,  colorless,  transparent 
crystals.  It  possesses  a  sweetish  taste,  and  is  readily 
dissolved  in  hot  water ;  the  firmer  the  pieces  of  pure 
borax  the  more  highly  prized. 

Borax  is  a  necessary  article  in  soldering  metals. 
It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  varnish,  as  a  wash 
powder,  in  starch,  cosmetics,  and  for  other  technical 
and  chemical  purposes. 

/:-CHROMATE. 

CHROMATE   OF   POTASH. 

Chromsaures  Kali,  Chromate  de  potasse,  Chromsyradt  KalL 

This  salt  is  melted  from  the  chromate  of  iron, 
•which  mineral  is  found  in  America  and  Norway. 
According  to  its  surplus  alkali,  chromate  of  potash 
is  either  neutral  or  acid. 

The  yellow  neutral  chromate  of  potash  forms 
small,  six-sided,  translucent  crystals  of  a  lemon 
color.  Its  coloring  principal  is  highly  developed. 

The  red,  acid  doubled  chromate  of  potash  is  yielded 
by  mixing  lye  with  nitric  acid. 

These  salts  are  used  in  the  dyeing  and  printing  of 
cloths,  and  for  oxidation  of  catechu.  They  find  applica- 
tion in  producing  aniline  dyes. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  297 

^.—CARBONATE. 

POTASH. 
Pottashe,  Potasse,  Potaska. 

This  name  is  applied  to  a  salt,  the  principal  ingre- 
dients of -which  are  carbonate  of  potash,  sulphuret  of 
potash,  carbonate  of  lime,  and  silicon.  Potash  is 
yielded  principally  by  extracting  the  lye  from  vege- 
table ashes,  wood  ashes,  or  ashes  obtained  from 
limbs  or  leaves.  The  lye  is  cooked  until  the  water 
has  evaporated  from  it,  and  is  then  placed  in  a  special 
oven  to  glow,  which  prepares  the  potash  for  the 
market.  Its  manufacture  is  carried  on  in  the  United 
States  and  several  European  countries.  It  represents 
a  crumbling  mass  of  a  white,  bluish,  yellowish,  or 
reddish  color. 

Among  the  potashes  which  are  important  in  trade 
are  those  prepared  from  wood  ashes  in  America  and 
Hungary ;  the  so-called  pearl  ash. 

Of  the  American  potashes  there  are  the  pearl  ash, 
in  little  dry,  bluish  pieces ;  stone  ash,  in  hard  pieces, 
colored  red  by  oxide  of  iron.  The  Hungarian  potash 
is  sometimes  purely  white,  though  more  frequently 
bluish. 

Large  quantities  of  potash  are  imported  into  the 
United  States  from  Peru. 

The  potash  produced  from  wood  coal  is  not  suf- 
ficient, and  therefore  it  is  also  yielded  from  other 
sources ;  e.  g.,  sea  water. 

The  uses  of  potash  are  very  manifold;  including  its 
use  in  the  manufacture  of  English  and  Bohemian 
crystal  glasses,  the  manufacture  of  dyestuffs,  soft 
soap,  its  use  in  chemistry,  medicines,  etc.  In  many 
instances,  potash  has  been  replaced  by  the  cheaper 
sal  ammonia,  or  natron. 


298  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

The  shipping  of  potash  is  done  in  poplar-wood  bar- 
rels, which  are  secured  against  the  air,  as  potash 
attracts  moisture  very  readily. 

SUBCARBONATE    OF    POTASH. 

This  salt  consists  of  68.2  potash  and  31.8  carbonic 
acid.  It  is  yielded  either  from  potash,  by  burning 
tartar,  or  chloride  of  potash. 

Subcarbonate  of  potash  is  a  white,  powdery, 
uncrystallized  mass  of  salt.  It  readily  attracts  mois- 
ture from  the  air.  It  tastes  of,  and  reacts  alkali.  It 
is  used  especially  in  chemistry  and  pharmacy. 

It  is  sent  into  trade  in  glass  vessels. 

SODA. 

Soda,   Soude.   Soda. 

Under  this  name  there  are  in  trade  several  products 
of  various  ingredients,  but  which  have  in  common 
their  origin  from  various  salts.  There  are  three  prin- 
cipal varieties  of  soda. 

1.  Carbonate  of  sodium  occurs  naturally  in  several 
places,  though  generally  mixed  with  glauber  salt ;  e. 
g.,  in  Hungary,  Egypt,  and  Central  America.    The 
Hungarian   variety  which  crops   from    the  ground 
bears  the    name    Szekio.     The    Egyptian  variety  is 
named  Trano,  and  the  American  Urao. 

2.  On  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea,  espe- 
cially in  Spain  and  France,  soda  is  prepared  by  burn- 
ing several  growths  which  thrive  on  the  shore,  espe- 
cially sal  soda    and  salicornia.    The  burning   takes 
place  in  a  hole  dug  in  the  earth.    The  heat  which 
develops  thereby  is  sufficient  to  solidify  the  ashes 
into  a  mass. 

The  best  kind  of  soda  of  this  variety  is  the  Spanish 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  299 

barilla.  It  comes  into  trade  in  large  firm  pieces  of  a 
dark  gray  color. 

In  Southern  France  a  soda  of  this  nature  is  pre- 
pared which  has  the  name  salicor. 

Kelp  is  the  name  applied  to  a  soda  which  is  pro- 
duced in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  Orkney  Islands. 
It  contains  2  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  potash. 

3.  The  third  important  variety  of  soda  is  that 
yielded  through  the  decomposition  of  salt,  and  is  at 
present  used  exclusively  in  Germany. 

Soda  is  shipped  in  boxes  and  barrels,  and  is  used 
largely  in  glass  and  soap  factories  for  bleaching, 
washing,  etc. 

Bicarbonate  of  sodium  is  composed  of  colorless 
crystals.  In  trade  this  salt  generally  has  the  form  of 
•white  powder.  The  salt  is  yielded  largely  from  min- 
eral springs.  It  is  used  largely  in  medicine  as  an  effer- 
vescent. A  cooling  summer  beverage  is  made  of  a 
solution  of  soda  which  is  charged  thus,  becoming 
very  sparkling.  The  most  important  ingredient  in 
the  well  known  baking  powder,  which  is  much  used 
by  housewives,  is  bicarbonate  of  soda,  though  it  usu- 
ally contains  several  other  ingredients,  as  alum, 
ammonia,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  exceedingly  injuri- 
ous. 

Caustic  soda  is  soda  from  which  the  carbonic 
acid  has  been  removed ;  this  is  important  to  make  it 
caustic,  in  many  cases.  A  lye  is  yielded  from  this 
soda  which  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 
During  late  years  quantities  of  caustic  soda  have 
reached  the  market  in  the  form  of  a  concentrated 
solution  (lye). 

This  soda  is  largely  used  by  soap  manufacturers,  in 
cleaning  brown  coal  tar  and  petroleum,  and  in  pre- 
paring wood  and  straw  for  the  manufacture  of 
paper. 


300  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

CARBONATE   OF   AMMONIA. 

This  salt  comes  into  trade  in  crystalline,  transpar- 
ent pieces ;  it  crumbles  readily  in  the  open  air.  It  is 
obtained  in  a  perfectly  pure  state  from  ore ;  its  com- 
position is  one  part  of  aqua  ammonia  and  three 
parts  crayon. 

It  is  used  in  bakery,  confectionery,  and  in  medicine. 

A  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammonia  and  water 
form  a  clear  liquid  known  as  aqua  ammonia.  This 
liquid  possesses  a  strong-  odor  and  evaporates 
readily  when  open  to  the  air. 

It  is  transported  in  glass  vessels,  and  is  used  as  a 
soluble  in  preparing  dyes,  in  extracting  grease  from 
clothing,  and  in  the  production  of  artificial  ice. 

ADDITION. 

In  addition  to  the  above  described  salts,  there  are 
several  products  which  are  also  salts,  when  considered 
from  a  chemical  standpoint,  though  they  are  not  so 
regarded  in  trade. 

Under  this  head  there  are  various  combinations  of 
magnesia,  phosphoric  acid  with  clay  and  phosphates. 
These  articles  have  been  sufficiently  considered  under 
the  head  of  animal  products. 

CARBONATE    OF    MAGNESIA. 

The  substance  which  is  designated  as  magnesia  in 
trade  consists  of  earth,  magnesia,  talc,  carbonic  acid, 
and  water.  It  is  a  very  light,  purely  white  colored 
and  odorless  substance,  which,  when  immersed  in 
water,  develops  gas  and  is  highly  effervescent.  In 
\vater  magnesia  is  nearly  insoluble.  By  causing  it 
to  glow,  it  becomes  pure  or  burnt  magnesia. 

Magnesia    was    formerly    manufactured    only    in 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  301 

England,  though  to-day  it  is  also  produced  in  the 
United  States  from  various  saline  substances. 

In  order  to  develop  it  from  bitter  salt,  the  latter  is 
dissolved  in  hot  water  and  caused  to  settle  by  the 
addition  of  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash.  The 
sediment  is  formed  when  still  moist  and  is  then  per- 
mitted to  dry. 

Carbonate  of  magnesia  is  regarded  with  favor  in 
proportion  to  its  lightness  and  whiteness.  It  is  used 
in  the  preparation  of  medicines  either  directly  or 
indirectly. 

PLUME  ALUM,      (FLEXIBLE    ASBESTOS,) 

Is  a  fibery  variety  of  tremolite,  of  the  hornblend 
kind,  which  consists  of  a  mass  of  compact  fibers 
which  may  readily  be  separated,  and  which  have  a 
greenish  tint.  Plume  of  alum  has  a  pearly  appear- 
ance, and  consists  of  magnesia,  lime,  and  silicon.  In 
acid  it  is  insoluble.  It  melts  in  very  high  temperature. 
It  often  consists  of  hairy  crystals  though  generally 
of  firm  pieces  grown  into  serpentine.  It  is  found 
principally  in  Canada,  Tyrol,  Bohemia,  and  Corsica. 

Asbestos  was  formerly  used  as  a  fireproof  material ; 
e.  g.,  fireproof  linen  and  lamp  wicks.  Of  late  the 
Canadian  asbestos  is  largely  manufactured  into  rope 
or  ground  to  pulp,  and  pressed  into  the  form  of  disks 
and  cylinders.  It  also  serves  for  certain  purposes  in 
chemistry. 

The  soft,  long  fibered  article  is  most  sought. 

FULLER'S  EARTH. 

A  peculiar  variety  of  clay,  of  which  excellent  speci- 
mens are  found  in  England,  Silesia,  and  Saxony. 
The  substance  forms  complete  layers  of  firm,  earthy 
pieces.  It  is  translucent,  of  a  gray,  green,  or  white 
color.  It  is  fatty,  and  does  not  cleave.  Its  most 


302  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

important  characteristic  is  its  affinity  for  fats  or  oils, 
which  it  possesses  in  a  higher  degree  than  any  other 
specie  of  clay. 

It  is  used  especially  in  fulling  cloth.  Before  being 
devoted  to  this  purpose,  it  must  be  cleansed  to  purify 
it  from  sand. 

English  fuller's  earth  is  the  best,  though  its  expor- 
tation is  forbidden.  The  Saxony  variety  approaches 
this  as  second. 

MICA. 

Mica  consists  of  clay,  silicon,  potash,  magnesia, 
iron,  etc.  It  is  formed  from  a  mixture  of  many  min- 
erals, e.  g.,  granite,  though  it  occurs  also  in  large 
masses  by  itself,  and  may  be  split  into  very  thin, 
highly  transparent  pieces.  These  are  flexible  and 
exceedingly  durable.  Mica  is  largely  used  in  stoves 
owing  to  its  ability  to  withstand  heat.  It  is  also 
used  in  producing  spectacles  and  an  ornamental 
powder  known  as  glimmer,  and  brocade  and  bronze 
powders. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Earthen  and  Gflasswar*. 

CLAY    PIPES. 

Thonpfeifen,  Pipes  a'Hotlaade.   Kritpipor. 

The  common  white  clay  pipes  are  produced  from 
•white  clay.  After  having  been  formed,  the  pipes  are 
burned  and  coated  with  a  solution  of  gum  traga- 
canth,  wax,  and  soap.  They  are  manufactured  mostly 
in  Holland,  though  they  are  also  produced  in  other 
European  countries  and  in  the  United  States. 

The  Turkish  and  Hungarian  pipes  are  made  of  clay 
containing  oxide  of  iron. 

MELTING    POTS. 

Schtaeltiegel,    Creusets,   Smaltdeglar. 

In  trade  there  are  two  varieties  of  melting  pots, 
namely,  the  Hessian  and  the  graphite  pots. 

The  Hessian  pots  are  manufactured  in  the  province 
of  Hessia,  in  Germany.  They  are  made  from  a  fire- 
proof clay  mixed  with  river  sand,  and  are  then  baked. 
They  have  a  three-cornered  or  round  opening,  and  a 
cover.  Their  color  is  bro vanish-yellow  or  grayish- 
yellow  ;  they  are  quite  fireproof,  though  they  cannot 
endure  quick  changes  of  temperature.  A  defect 
in  these  pots  is  their  very  rough  surface. 

A  far  better  pot  than  the  foregoing  is  made  in 
porcelain  factories.  In  England  the  pots  are  pro- 

303 


304  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

duced  from  Stourbridge  clay,  in  Sweden  atHoganas; 
both  varieties  are  reputed  lor  their  excellence.  They 
are  used  in  smelting  steel.  The  glass  pots,  in  which 
glass  is  smelted,  are  likewise  produced  from  fireproof 
clay.  Pots  for  smelting  platinum  are  produced  from 
lime  and  magnesia. 

Graphite  pots  are  produced  from  a  mixture  of  clay 
and  graphite,  and  come  into  trade  dried  and  unburnt. 

They  endure  great  heat  without  melting,  and  are 
not  susceptible  to  changes  of  temperature.  They 
are  used  especially  in  melting  metals. 

POTTERY. 

Steingut.  Faience,  Fayence. 

Pottery  was  long  known  a  sfayence  after  the  Italian 
city  Faenza,  and  may  be  distinguished  from  the 
common  pottery  by  its  hardness,  and  its  white  or 
colorless  glazing.  It  may  be  distinguished  from 
porcelain  by  its  faint,  earthy  fracture,  which,  owing 
to  its  porocity,  readily  cleaves  to  the  tongue. 

The  finest  variety  is  the  English.  The  glazing  (of 
oxide  of  lead,  feldspar,  silicon,  and  flint  glass)  is 
transparent  and  free  from  rents.  The  glazing  is  fre- 
quently colored  or  ornamented  in  various  patterns. 

The  common  pottery  is  commonly  of  a  yellowish 
color,  and  is  coated  with  a  translucent  glazing  \vhich 
often  possesses  numerous  very  fine  rents. 

Under  the  name  of  majolika  there  is,  in  trade,  stone- 
ware which  has  descended  from  the  middle  ages; 
this  ware  possesses  artistic  and  historical  value. 
It  was  manufactured  on  the  island  of  Majorka. 

Terrolith  ware  is  an  unglazed  pottery  of  a  yellow 
or  red  clay  which  is  coated  with  colored  or  a  color- 
less varnish  and  often  richly  bronzed.  It  is  manu- 
factured in  Bohemia,  and  is  shaped  in  manifold 
beautiful  figures  and  wares. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  305 

TERRA   COTTA   WARE. 

By  this  name  is  designated  a  ware  of  a  yellow, 
slightly  burned  clay  which  is  not  glazed,  and  has  an 
earthy,  porous  fracture.  These  wares  are  used  largely 
in  building,  for  decorative  purposes,  furnishing  a 
cheap  substitute  for  sandstone. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  value  of  the  brick  and  terra 
cotta  wares  of  the  United  States  amounts  to  $50,000,- 
000  yearly. 

STONEWARE. 

Stoneware  is  well  defined  from  the  common 
pottery  \vare.  It  is  a  variety  of  coarse  porcelain, 
and  is  distinguished  from  this  by  its  impure  color 
and  its  glazing.  Its  mass  is  stony  and,  when  frac- 
tured, does  not  absorb  water.  It  is  hard  and  emits 
sparks  \vhen  struck  \vith  steel.  It  receives  its  glaze 
from  salt  (known  as  salt-glazed  or  vitrified)  which 
is  poured  over  it  when  in  the  process  of  burning. 
Therefore  the  hair-like  rents  do  not  appear  on  it. 

The  color  of  new  stoneware  is  gray  or  brown  in 
various  shades. 

The  bottles  used  in  shipping  mineral  water,  jars, 
crocks,  drain,  or  sewer  pipes,  are  stoneware. 

The  so-called  wedgewood  ware  is  between  stone- 
ware and  pottery. 

PORCELAIN. 

Porzellan,  Porcelaine,  Porslin. 

The  materials  used  in  producing  real  porcelain  are 
the  so-called  porcelain  earth  (kaolin),  a  fireproof 
clay  containing  lime,  feldspar,  and  pieces  of  porce- 
lain which  are  reduced  to  powder.  The  glazing 
usually  contains  other  substances,  e.  g.,  gypsum, 

lime,  etc. 
no 


306  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

The  proportion  of  the  mixture  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  material.  In  general,  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain  coincides  with  that  of  stone  or  earthen 
ware.  The  difference  between  porcelain  and  earthen 
ware  exists  chiefly  in  the  purity  of  the  former  and  the 
fact  that  its  material  cannot  be  melted.  In  order  to 
secure  the  latter  quality,  the  material  is  burnt  at  a 
temperature  of  from  1,400  to  1,500°  C.  It  contracts 
•without  changing  its  form,  and  thus  obtains  the 
peculiar  stone-like  characteristic  of  porcelain. 

Porcelain  is  translucent  in  thin  pieces,  and  gives 
forth  a  clear,  pure  tone  when  struck ;  in  fracture  it  is 
shell-like,  fine  grained,  and  lustrous.  The  mass  is 
perfectly  impervious  to  water.  The  glazing  is  closely 
combined  with  the  porcelain,  and  cannot,  therefore, 
be  removed.  Porcelain  without  glazing  has  a  dull, 
silky  luster.  It  is  termed  bisquit,  and  is  used  espe- 
cially in  producing  busts,  works  of  art,  and  the  well 
known  Diaphan  pictures. 

In  China  and  Japan  porcelain  has  been  produced 
since  the  oldest  times.  The  Chinese  porcelain  is 
extraordinarily  fireproof,  though  not  so  white  as  the 
Saxon  product.  The  glazing  is  generally  greenish, 
and  often  cracked.  The  wares  are  distinguished  by 
their  lightness  and  thinness.  The  painting,  in  the 
common  chemical  style,  is  placed  on  the  glazed  sur- 
face ;  in  Japan  the  glazing  is  placed  over  the  decora- 
tion. 

Among  the  porcelain  wares  of  Europe,  the  German 
wares  take  first  rank  in  beauty  and  quality.  The 
factories  of  Saxony  and  Berlin  deserve  especial  men- 
tion. The  factory  in  Vienna  furnishes  an  excellent 
product,  which  may  also  be  said  of  the  factories  in 
Saxony,  Bavaria,  Bohemia,  etc.  In  the  direction  of 
beauty  of  form  and  ornamentation,  the  French  fac- 
tories, especially  that  of  Sevres,  furnish  porcelain 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  307 

which  is  regarded  as  being  among  the  best,  though 
it  cannot  withstand  changes  of  temperature  and 
cracks  very  easily. 

Iron  stone  china  varies  from  the  ordinary  porcelain 
inasmuch  as  it  is  partially  composed  of  glass,  which 
is  added  to  the  mixture  ot  clay,  and  therefore  more 
properly  belongs  among  the  glassware  than  the 
stoneware. 

Reaumurs  porcelain  is  a  mass  which  has  become 
translucent  by  continued  glowing.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  coating  of  gypsum. 

Chamott  stones  are  a  variety  of  fireproof  brick 
used  in  building  fire-places.  They  are  produced  in 
porcelain  factories,  and  appear  more  or  less  polished. 

Artistic  pottery  is  manufactured  in  Trenton,  N.  J., 
in  large  quantities.  In  Cincinnati  a  kind  of  a  ware 
termed  Rook  wood  pottery  is  produced.  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  Illinois,  and  Pennsylvania  produce  china 
ware. 

GLASS. 

Glas,   Verre.  Glas. 

Glass  is  produced  by  melting  a  fusion  of  silicon, 
potash,  soda  or  glaubers  salt,  and  lime.  It  is  pre- 
pared in  the  glassworks,  and  is  there  \vrought  into 
wares.  In  yielding  the  finer  qualities  of  glass,  oxide 
of  lead  is  added  to  the  mixture,  while  the  coarser 
materials  are  produced  by  the  use  of  broken  glass, 
salt,  ash,  lava,  etc. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  glass  which  appear  in 
trade,  the  most  important  are  the  hollow  and  table 
glass,  ground  glass,  and  plate  glass.  The  former  two 
varieties  are  formed  by  blowing,  while  the  latter  is 
cast. 

Hollow  glass  is  of  several  qualities,  the  common 
dark  glass  l)eing  composed  of  quartz,  glaubers  salt, 


308  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OP   WARES. 

coal,  sulphuric  acid,  soda,  common  salt,  lime, — in 
short,  materials  which  cannot  be  used  in  producing 
the  finer  grades  of  glass.  Ordinary  wine  bottles  are 
produced  from  this  material. 

White  glass  requires  better  materials.  It  is  classi- 
fied as  pure,  white,  and  half  white,  the  latter  being 
of  a  greenish  or  yellowish  tint.  To  destroy  the  tint 
given  white  glass  by  the  presence  of  iron  in  it,  a  little 
brown  stone  is  added  to  the  mass,  which  gives  it  a 
slightly  reddish  tinge.  The  purely  white  glass  some- 
times bears  the  name  of  crayon  glass.  It  must  be 
clear,  white,  and  transparent,  and  must  be  able  to 
'  withstand  the  changes  of  temperature  in  a  measure. 
The  surface  must  be  smooth. 

Flat  glass  is  of  the  same  mixture  found  in  white 
hollow  glass.  It  also  possesses  a  like  variety  of  col- 
ors. According  to  the  manner  of  manufacture,  this 
glass  is  divided  into  sheet,  plate,  and  crown  glass.  It 
is  first  blown  into  a  spherical  form,  and,  by  opening 
and  rapid  turning,  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  disk ;  the 
projecting  edges  are  the  crowns. 

Flat  glass  is  prepared  from  purest  white  glass 
(especially  crystal  glass  containing  lead).  The  hol- 
low pieces  are  often  blown  by  the  aid  of  forms. 

Plate  glass  is  produced  partially  from  blowing  and 
partially  by  casting,  and  then  grinding  and  polish- 
ing the  surface.  Mirrors  are  produced  from  this  by 
placing  an  amalgamate  of  zinc  or  other  metal  to  its 
back. 

For  optical  purposes,  flint  and  crown  glass  are 
much  used.  The  former  consists  of  a  mixture  of  lead, 
silicon,  and  potash.  The  English  and  German  flint 
glass  is  noted  for  its  excellent  quality. 

Colored  glass  is  produced  by  melting  glass,  con- 
taining various  metal  oxides.  The  basis  for  this  mix- 
ture is  a  very  clear  glass  produced  from  lead.  The 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  309 

so-called  milk  glass  is  colored,  either  by  oxide  of  zinc, 
pryolith,  guano,  or  burnt  bones.  Not  all  colored 
glasses  are  colored  throughout  their  entire  mass; 
many  have  simply  a  colored  coating. 

Excellent  glass  is  furnished  by  England,  France, 
Bohemia,  and  Silesia.  Bohemia  produces  probably 
more  glass  than  any  other  country  of  the  earth. 
Some  of  the  finest  silica,  commonly  called  quartz, 
used  in  glassmaking  is  found  in  Western  Massachu- 
setts. It  is  reduced  to  powder  and  is  converted  into 
crystal  glass. 

Glass-making  in  this  country  has  reached  a  high 
state  of  perfection,  both  in  crystal  and  cut  glass,  as 
well  ^s  the  beautifully  colored  cathedral  glass.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  this  are  exported  to  Europe. 

In  the  United  States  most  of  the  cut  and  art  glass 
is  made  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York,  while  the 
cheaper  grades  are  manufactured  in  Western  Penn- 
sylvania and  West  Virginia,  where  natural  gas  is 
available  for  fuel.  Pittsburg  is  the  principal  glass- 
producing  city. 

The  United  States  imports  plate  glass  from  Eng- 
land ;  bottles  and  vials  from  Germany ;  and  small 
glassware  from  Austria  and  Germany;  to  the  value 
of  about  $7,000,000  yearly.  Our  exports  aggregate 
$1,000,000  annually. 


CHAPTER  IX. 
Metals  and  Metallic  Substances. 

The  true  metals  are  divided  into  noble  and  ignoble 
metals.  Noble  metals, — gold,  silver,  platinum, — are 
so  called  from  their  freedom  from  oxidation  and 
permanence  in  air  and  water.  Ignoble  metals,  as 
iron,  copper,  lead,  etc.,  are  so  called  because  their 
surface  is  affected  by  the  oxygen  in  the  air,  whereby 
they  rust.  In  consequence  of  their  affinity  for  the 
metalloids,  metals  are  seldom  found  in  a  free  or 
uncombined  state.  The  more  common  metals,  in 
consequence  of  their  affinity  for  oxygen  and  sulphur, 
are  very  rarely  met  with  in  an  uncombined  state ; 
but  some  of  these  which  are  less  abundant  than 
noble  metals,  are  found  uncombined;  and  other 
metals,  as  mercury  and  copper,  occur  both  in  the  free 
and  in  the  combined  state.  Many  native  alloys  are 
found,  but  nietals  generally  occur  in  combination  with 
oxides,  sulphides,  chlorides,  and  carbonates,  sul- 
phates, and  other  salts,  and  are  then  termed  metallic 
ores. 

GOLD. 

Gold,  Or,  Guld. 

Gold  is  a  metallic  element,  constituting  the  most 
precious  metal  used  as  a  common  commercial  medium 
of  exchange.  Although  the  quantity  of  gold  which 
is  found,  when  compared  with  that  of  any  other 

310 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  311 

metal,  is  small,  yet  there  are  few  parts  of  the  globe 
in  which  it  does  not  occur  more  or  less  abundantly. 

Previous  to  the  great  Californian  disco  very  in  1847, 
Europe  was  to  a  great  extent  supplied  with  gold 
from  Mexico,  Brazil,  New  Granada,  Chili,  and  Peru, 
in  North  and  South  America ;  a  large  quantity  was 
also  obtained  from  Asiatic  Russia  and  the  islands  of 
the  Indian  archipelago ;  the  east  and  west  coast  of 
Africa  furnished  a  less  but  still  considerable  quantity. 
All  these  countries  still  produce  gold,  but  their  total 
yield,  including  Europe,  is  only  about  one-fourth  that 
of  California  and  Australia. 

Gold  in  its  compact  state  possesses  a  characteristic 
yellow  color  and  high  metallic  luster,  is  nearly  as  soft 
as  lead,  and  is  the  most  malleable  of  all  metals.  It 
can  be  beaten  into  leaves  of  a  thinness  not  exceeding 
1-200,000  of  an  inch,  through  which  light  passes 
with  a  green  tint ;  the  ductility  of  the  metal  is  so 
great  that  the  same  quantity  can  be  drawn  out  into 
500  feet  of  wire.  Gold  has  very  little  affinity  for 
oxygen ;  it  undergoes  no  change  on  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere,  and  is  unaffected  by  hydrochloric,  sul- 
phuric, or  nitric  acid ;  nor  do  the  alkalies  affect  it.  It 
is,  however,  dissolved  by  any  mixture  which  liberates 
chlorine,  its  usual  solvent  being  aqua  regia,  which  is 
generally  prepared  by  mixing  one  part  of  nitric  acid 
with  four  parts  of  hydrochloric  acid. 

Gold  is  very  widely  disseminated,  as  in  the  sands 
of  many  rivers,  but  in  very  small  quantities.  It 
usually  occurs  in  quartz  veins,  in  state  and  meta- 
morphic  rocks,  or  in  the  sand  and  alluvial  soil,  result- 
ing from  the  disintegration  of  such  rocks.  It  also 
occurs  associated  with  metallic  substances.  Gold  is 
extracted  from  the  ore  by  crushing  the  rock  and  then 
agitating  the  finely  pulverized  ore  with  water  and 
quicksilver.  The  latter  dissolves  the  gold,  uniting 


312  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

with  it  to  form  an  amalgam.  The  foreign  matter  is 
washed  away,  leaving  the  two  metals.  The  quick- 
silver is  then  separated  from  the  gold  by  distillation, 
and  is  ready  to  be  used  again. 

Pure  gold  is  too  soft  for  ordinary  use,  and  is  hard- 
ened by  alloying  with  silver  and  copper,  the  latter 
giving  a  characteristic  reddish  tinge.  It  is  this  alloy 
which  is  employed  in  our  gold  coinage.  In  the 
United  States,  standard  gold  contains  10  per  cent  of 
copper.  Jewelers  alloy  their  gold  with  other  metals, 
partly  on  economical  grounds,  and  partly  for  the 
purpOvSe  of  evolving  special  tints.  Thus,  red  gold  is 
obtained  by  combining  75  parts  of  fine  gold  with  25  of 
copper;  green  gold,  by  combining  75  parts  of  fine 
gold  with  25  parts  of  silver;  dead  leaf  gold,  by  com- 
bining 70  parts  of  fine  gold  with  30  of  silver;  water- 
green  gold,  by  combining  60  parts  of  fine  gold  with 
40  of  silver ;  blue  gold,  by  combining  75  parts  of  fine 
gold  with  25  of  iron.  Gold  is  said  to  be  so  many 
carats  fine,  according  to  the  number  of  twenty-fourths 
of  pure  gold  which  it  contains;  as,  22  carats  fine 
is  equal  to  22  parts  of  gold,  one  of  copper,  and  one  of 
silver. 

Some  of  the  finest  and  most  delicate  colors  are 
chemical  combinations  of  gold,  particularly  those 
colors  which  are  used  in  glass  and  porcelain  decora- 
tion. 

Gold  leaf  is  gold  beaten  into  a  film  of  extreme  thin- 
ness, and  used  for  gilding,  etc.  It  is  much  thinner 
than  gold  foil,  the  thin  sheets  as  used  by  dentists  and 
others. 

Gold  shell  or  gold  paint  is  a  composition  of  pow- 
dered gold  or  gold  leaf,  ground  up  with  gum  water 
and  spread  on  shells,  for  artists'  use. 

Gold  solder  is  a  kind  of  solder  containing  12  parts 
of  gold,  2  of  silver,  and  4  of  copper. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  313 

Gold  thread  is  a  thread  formed  by  twisting  flattened 
gold  over  a  thread  of  silk,  with  a  wheel  and  iron 
bobbins. 

Gold  lace  is  a  lace  having  warp  threads  of  silk,  or 
silk  and  cotton,  and  a  weft  of  silk  thread  covered 
with  gold,  or  with  gilt. 

PLATINUM. 

Platina,  Flantinc,  Platina. 

Platinum,  a  metallic  element,  intermediate  in  value 
between  silver  and  gold,  may  be  obtained  in  more 
forms  than  one.  It  is  only  found  in  its  native  state, 
usually  occurring  in  small  glistening  granules  of  a 
steel-gray  color,  which  always  contain  an  admixture 
in  varying  proportions,  of  several  metals,  most  of 
which  are  rarely  found  except  in  association  with 
platinum.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is  found  in  masses 
of  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  and  pieces  weighing  ten 
or  even  twenty  pounds  have  occasionally  been 
found. 

This  noble  metal,  known  in  Europe  since  1750,  is 
found  in  South  America,  Peru,  Brazil,  and  especially 
among  gold  sand  along  the  Ural  mountains. 

Platinum  exhibits  a  bluish- white,  metallic  luster; 
it  is  exceedingly  malleable  and  ductile,  and  is  very 
infusible,  melting  only  before  the  oxyhydrogen  blow- 
pipe, or  in  a  very  powerful  blast  furnace.  It  expands 
less  by  heat  than  any  other  metal,  and  is  usually 
regarded  as  the  heaviest  form  of  matter  yet  known. 
It  is  unaffected  by  atmospheric  action,  and  does  not 
undergo  oxidation  in  the  air  at  even  the  highest  tem- 
perature. 

Platinum  is  not  acted  on  by  nitric,  hydrochloric, 
sulphuric,  or  hydrofluoric  acid,  or  in  short,  by  any 
single  acid  ;  but  aqua  regia. 


314  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

In  consequence  of  its  power  to  resist  the  action 
of  acids,  it  is  of  great  service  in  experimental  and 
manufacturing  chemical  processes,  platinum  spat- 
ulas, capsules,  crucibles,  etc.,  beingemployed  in  every 
laboratory.  Platinum  is,  however,  corroded  if 
heated  with  the  alkalies  or  alkaline  earths,  and 
especially  with  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  potash  and 
hydrated  potash,  an  oxide  being  formed  which  com- 
bines with  the  alkaline  bases. 

Platinum  sponge,  metallic  platinum  in  a  gray, 
porous,  spongy  form,  is  obtained  by  reducing  the 
double  chloride  of  platinum  and  ammonium.  It 
absorbs  oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  certain  other  gases, 
to  a  high  degree,  and  is  employed  as  an  agent  in 
oxidizing. 

Platinum  black  is  a  soft,  dull,  black  powder,  con- 
sisting of  finely  divided  metallic  platinum  obtained 
by  reduction  and  precipitation  from  its  solutions.  It 
absorbs  oxygen  to  a  high  degree,  and  is  used  as  an 
oxidizer. 

SILVER. 

Silber,   Argent,   Silver. 

Silver,  a  white,  soft,  metallic  element,  is  frequently 
met  with  in  the  native  state,  crystallized  in  cubes  or 
octahedrons,  or  occurring  in  fiberous  masses.  It  is 
also  found  in  combination  with  gold,  mercury,  lead, 
antimony,  arsenic,  sulphur,  etc.,  and  sulphite  of  lead 
is  almost  always  accompanied  with  a  greater  or  less 
amount  of  sulphide  of  silver ;  it  is,  however,  never 
found  as  an  oxide. 

Silver,  like  gold,  has  been  known  and  prized  from 
the  earliest  ages.  A  large  proportion  of  the  world's 
supply  of  silver  has  come  from  the  mines  of  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  Bolivia.  The  mine  that  has  furnished  the 
greatest  amount  is  near  Potosi,  in  Bolivia,  and  it  is 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  315 

estimated  to  have  produced  metal  to  the  value  of 
$82,000,000,000.  Since  the  development  of  the  min- 
eral wealth  of  the  western  part  of  the  United  States, 
our  own  country  has  become  the  chief  silver-produc- 
ing nation ;  and  more  than  one-third  of  the  world's 
supply  now  comes  from  the  United  States ;  Colorado 
and  Montana  being  the  two  leading  states  in  the 
yield  of  this  metal.  Of  European  countries,  Spain  is 
the  most  productive,  and  next  to  Spain,  Austria, 
Saxony,  and  the  Harz  district  in  Northern  Germany 
yield  the  largest  supply. 

The  value  of  silver  has  recently  undergone  a 
remarkable  depreciation,  causing  great  commercial 
inconvenience  and  loss,  especially  where  silver  is  the 
standard,  as  in  India.  A  chief  cause  for  depreciation 
is  the  recent  great  production.  The  change  in  value 
has  promoted  the  controversy  on  ''bimetallism," 
and  in  1879  the  United  States  "monetized  "  silver,  or 
made  it  equally  a  legal  tender  with  gold,  though  it 
was  then  11  per  cent  less  valuable  in  the  market. 

The  quantity  of  silver  found  in  nature  in  the 
metallic  state  is  comparatively  small.  Its  principal 
ores  are  the  different  sulphides  or  sulphurets,  viz., 
silver  glance,  or  sulphuret  of  silver,  containing,  when 
pure,  87  parts  of  silver  and  13  of  sulphur;  brittle 
silver  ore,  or  sulphuret  of  silver  and  antimony,  of 
\vhich  the  composition  is,  silver,  68.5 ;  antimony, 
14.7;  sulphur,  16.4;  and  red  silver  ore,  called  also 
ruby  silver,  of  which  there  is  a  dark  and  a  light  kind, 
the  composition  of  the  former  being  similar  to  brittle 
silver  ore,  but  it  is  a  little  less  rich  in  silver,  and  the 
latter  only  differs  in  containing  arsenic  instead  of 
antimony.  Horn  silver,  or  chloride  silver,  consists 
of  silver  75,  and  chlorine  25 ;  it  occurs  extensively  in 
Mexico  and  Peru.  A  good  deal  of  the  silver  of  com- 
merce is  obtained  from  mixed  ores,  that  is,  the  ores 


316  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

of  other  metals  are  frequently  found  to  contain  it ; 
these  ores  are  for  the  most  part  sulphurets  of  lead, 
arsenic,  copper,  zinc,  and  iron. 

Silver  in  its  compact  state  is  of  a  brilliant  white 
color,  possesses  the  metallic  luster  to  a  remarkable 
degree,  is  capable  of  being  highly  polished,  and 
evolves  a  clear,  ringing  sound  when  struck.  It  is 
harder  than  gold  but  softer  than  copper,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  ductile  of  the  metals.  It  is  malleable, 
may  be  hammered  into  very  thin  leaves,  and  may  be 
drawn  out  into  very  fine  wire,  the  thinnest  silver-leaf 
having  a  thickness  of  only  1-100,000  of  an  inch.  It 
possesses  a  high  degree  of  tenacity,  a  wire  with  a 
diameter  of  1-12  of  an  inch  being  able  to  support  a 
weight  of  nearly  188  pounds.  It  requires  a  heat  of 
1,873°  F.  to  fuse  it.  Although  it  does  not  rust  or 
become  oxidized,  it  usually  becomes  tarnished  on  pro- 
longated  exposure  to  the  air,  owing  to  the  formation 
of  a  film  of  sulphide  of  silver,  and  this  change  occurs 
more  rapidly  in  town  than  in  the  country,  in  conse- 
quence of  sulphureted  hydrogen  being  more  abun- 
dant in  the  atmosphere  of  the  former  than  of  the 
latter. 

Wrought  silver  and  bullion  are  always  alloyed  with 
copper,  and  the  alloy  thus  resulting  is  harder  and 
evolves  a  more  ringing  sound  than  pure  silver;  a 
slight  alloy  scarcely  changes  the  color  of  the  silver, 
but  a  larger  alloy  gives  to  it  a  tinge  of  red.  Silver  is 
generally  tested  by  the  touch-stone,  a  hard,  black 
stone,  the  best  kind  of  which  is  obtained  from  Lydia 
in  Asia  Minor ;  but  black  basalt  may  be  employed. 
The  process  is  as  follows:  A  series  of  "needles"  or 
small  bars  are  formed,  the  first  consisting  of  pure 
gold;  the  second  of  23  parts  of  gold  and  1  of  copper; 
the  third,  of  22  parts  of  gold  and  2  of  copper,  and 
so  on.  The  assayer  selects  one  of  these  alloys,  or 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  317 

"needles,"  which,  from  its  color,  he  judges  to 
approach  nearest  in  composition  to  the  alloy  which 
he  is  about  to  assay.  This  he  rubs  on  the  stone,  and 
the  streak  which  it  leaves  is  red  in  proportion  to  the 
copper  that  is  present.  The  streak  formed  by  the 
alloy  to  be  assayed  is  then  compared  with  that 
formed  by  the  various  "needles,"  and  corresponding 
streaks  indicate  a  corresponding  amount  of  copper. 
Hence,  an  approximate  estimate  of  the  amount  of 
copper  in  an  alloy  can  be  made. 

The  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  silver  are 
such  as  to  make  it  specially  valuable  for  many  pur- 
poses in  the  art.  Ordinary  mirrors  have  their  silver- 
ing produced  by  a  coating  of  an  amalgam  of  tin  and 
mercury;  but  for  some  years,  mirrors  coated  by  a 
patent  process  with  real  silver,  and  backed  by  a  layer 
of  some  composition  which  protects  it  from  the 
blackening  action  of  sulphureted  hydrogen  have 
been  made  in  great  numbers. 

Nitrate  ot  silver  is  a  white,  crystallized  salt,  used 
in  photography  and  as  a  cauterizing  agent.  Silver 
leaf  is  a  leaf  or  sheet  made  of  silver,  beaten  very 
thin. 

The  United  States  imports  silver  ores  to  the  value 
of  about  $5,000,000  annually;  nearly  all  of  it  is  from 
Mexico. 

MERCURY,     OR    QUICKSILVER. 
Quecksilber,    \fercure,    Quicksilver. 

Quicksilver  is  sometimes  found  in  the  metallic  state, 
but  it  usually  occurs  in  combination  with  sulphur. 
In  this  form  it  is  known  as  cinnabar,  the  artificial 
form  of  which  is  the  pigment  known  as  vermilion. 
Until  the  discovery  of  the  mines  in  California,  the 
•world's  supply  of  quicksilver  came  from  Spain,  Idria, 
in  Austria,  China,  and  Japan.  There  are  several 


318  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

extensive  deposits  of  cinnabar  in  California;  and  the 
mines  of  New  Almaden  produce  the  chief  supply. 

Quicksilver  is  of  a  silvery  white  color,  with  a  strik- 
ing metallic  luster.  When  pure,  it  runs  in  small 
spherical  drops  over  smooth  surfaces ;  but  when  not 
perfectly  pure,  the  drops  assume  an  elongated  or 
tailed  form,  and  often  leave  a  gray  stain  on  the  sur- 
face of  glass  or  porcelain.  Moreover,  the  pure  metal, 
when  shaken  with  air,  presents  no  change  upon  the 
surface ;  while,  if  impure,  it  becomes  covered  with 
film.  It  is  slightly  volatile  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, and  at  662°  it  boils,  and  forms  a  colorless 
vapor,  of  specific  gravity  6.976.  Hence  it  is  capable 
of  being  distilled ;  and  the  fact  of  being  somewhat 
volatile  at  ordinary  temperatures  helps  to  explain  its 
pernicious  effects  upon  those  whose  trades  require 
them  to  come  much  in  contact  with  it,  as,  e.  g.,  the 
makers  of  barometers,  looking-glasses,  etc.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  uniform  rate  at  which  it  expands 
when  heated,  from  considerably  below  0°  to  above 
300°,  it  is  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  mer- 
curial thermometer.  At  a  temperature  of  39°  it 
freezes,  when  it  contracts  considerably  and  becomes 
malleable. 

The  quicksilver  on  the  market  is  usually  almost 
chemically  pure.  If  the  presence  of  other  metals  is 
suspected,  it  may  be  pressed  through  leather,  redis- 
tilled, and  then  digested  for  a  few  days  in  diluted 
cold  nitrate  acid,  which  exerts  little  action  on  the 
quicksilver,  if  more  oxidizable  metals  are  present. 
The  quicksilver,  after  being  freed  from  the  nitric  acid 
by  washing  with  water,  is  chemically  pure. 

The  uses  of  quicksilver  are  so  numerous  that  a 
very  brief  allusion  to  the  most  important  of  these 
must  suffice.  It  is  employed  extensively  in  the 
extraction  of  gold  and  silver  from  their  ores  by  the 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  319 

process  of  amalgamation.  Amalgams  are  employed 
in  the  process  of  silvering  and  gilding,  and  some,  (as 
those  of  copper  and  cadmium)  are  employed  by  the 
dentist  for  stopping  teeth.  It  is  indispensable  in  the 
construction  of  philosophical  instruments,  and  in  the 
laboratory  in  the  form  of  the  mercurial  bath,  etc.  It 
is  the  source  of  the  valuable  pigment  vermilion. 

Fulminating  mercury  is  best  prepared  by  dissolv- 
ing 3  parts  of  mercury  in  36  of  nitrate  acid,  of  the 
specific  gravity  1.34,  without  the  application  of  heat, 
in  a  flask  capable  of  holding  18  times  the  bulk  of  the 
acid.  The  solution  is  then  poured  into  a  large  vessel 
containing  17  parts  alcohol,  of  specific  gravity 
0.830,  and  immediately  to  be  transferred  to  the 
flask,  which  is  still  full  of  nitrous  vapors.  Efferves- 
cence commences  in  a  few  minutes,  and  at  same  time 
there  is  deposit  of  metallic  mercury,  which  is  gradu- 
ally redissolved.  The  reaction  must  be  moderated 
by  the  gradual  addition  of  17  parts  more  of  alcohol. 
Fulminate  of  mercury  forms  white,  silky  needles.  It 
may  be  handled  without  much  danger  when  moist; 
but  when  dry  it  explodes  with  violence  when  struck 
by  a  hard  body,  or  when  touched  with  nitric  or 
strong  sulphuric  acid.  A  mixture  of  1  part  of  this 
salt  with  6  parts  of  nitre,  or  of  3  parts  of  the  fulmi- 
nate, 5  of  chlorate  of  potash,  1  of  sulphur,  and  1  of 
ground  glass,  is  employed  in  the  priming  of  percus- 
sion caps.  It  is  applied  as  a  dry  powder,  and  is 
made  to  adhere  to  the  cap  by  the  application  of  a 
drop  of  shellac  varnish. 

COPPER. 

Kupfer,  Cvivre,  Koppar. 

Next  to  iron,  copper  is  the  most  useful  of  metals. 
Native  copper  is  not  a  very  rare  occurrence ;  it  is 
sometimes  massive,  or  in  grains,  plates,  etc. ;  some- 


320  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

times  crystallized  in  cubes  or  octahedrons ;  some- 
times it  assumes  dendritic  and  other  beautiful  forms. 
What  are  called  ores  in  commerce,  generally  consist 
of  the  tube  ore  disseminated  through  rock,  and  are 
therefore  very  variable  in  productiveness.  Among 
the  most  plentiful  and  valuable  copper  ores  are  the 
copper  pyrites,  or  yellow  copper  ores,  which  are  mixed 
with  iron  and  sulphur;  but  there  is  a  richer  ore 
called  purple  copper,  or  variegated  copper,  or  born- 
ite;  also  a  compound  of  sulphur,  copper,  and  iron. 
Malachite  and  azurite,  both  consisting  essentially  of 
carbonate  of  copper,  are  valuable  ores,  as  are  some 
ores  which  are  essentially  composed  of  oxygen  find 
copper,  particularly  red  copper  ore  (cuprite)  md 
black  copper  ore  (tenorite).  Some  ores  of  copper 
also  contain  silver,  and  some  contain  arsenic,  anti- 
mony, etc.  Gray  copper  ore  is  very  compound,  con- 
taining silver,  mercury,  zinc,  antimony,  arsenic,  iron, 
and  sulphur. 

Numerous  copper  mines  exist  in  Europe,  the  more 
important  being  in  Spain  and  Germany;  but  the  dis- 
covery of  rich  deposits  in  other  parts  of  the  world 
has  almost  entirely  changed  the  source  of  supply. 
Three-sevenths  of  the  world's  copper  conies  from  our 
own  country.  The  richest  and  most  productive 
mines  in  the  United  States  are  in  Montana  and 
Michigan,  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.  There 
are  other  valuable  deposits  in  Utah,  Arizona,  and 
New  Mexico.  Copper  is  also  produced  in  Chili, 
Japan,  and  Australia. 

In  the  extraction  of  copper  from  its  ores,  the 
metallurgic  processes  followed  are  very  tedious  and 
complicated,  which  mainly  arises  from  the  difficulty 
of  separating  the  iron  and  sulphur  from  the  copper. 
The  general  principle  which  regulates  the  working 
up  of  the  ore,  is  to  burn  away  the  sulphurous  acid, 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  321 

and  to  carry  off  the  iron  by  means  of  fluxes  in  the 
form  of  scoriae,  or  slag. 

Pure  copper  is  of  a  red-brown  color,  and  has  the 
specific  gravity  8.78  when  cast,  and  8.96  when  rolled 
or  hammered;  it  fuses  at  1,996°  F.,  and  at  a  white 
heat  passes  off  in  vapor  and  burns  with  a  green 
flame.  It  is  very  malleable,  and  can  thus  be  beaten 
out  into  thin  leaves;  it  is  very  ductile,  so  as  to  admit 
of  being  drawn  out  into  thin  wires ;  it  is  a  powerful 
conductor  of  electricity,  and  hence  is  employed  in  the 
construction  of  lightning-conductors,  and  in  tele- 
graph wires.  Copper  is  also  employed  largely  in  the 
sheathing  of  wooden  vessels,  for  covering  roofs,  for 
numerous  domestic  purposes,  and  as  an  alloy,  not 
only  with  gold  and  silver,  but  also  for  making  brass. 
It  is  likewise  a  compound  element  in  bronze,  bell- 
metal,  gun-metal,  and  other  compositions. 

Copper  forms  many  compounds.  There  are  two 
oxides — the  black  and  the  red.  The  latter  is  employed 
in  coloring  glass  of  ruby-red  tint.  The  green  rust 
which  forms  on  the  surface  of  copper  is  a  carbonate 
of  copper,  and  is  very  poisonous.  The  carbonate  of 
copper,  under  the  name  of  blue  verdigris,  is  largely 
prepared  and  sold  as  a  pigment.  The  subchloride  of 
copper,  moistened  and  exposed  to  the  air,  yields  a 
pigment  known  as  Brunswick  green.  There  are  sev- 
eral compounds  obtained  by  allowing  acetic  acid  to 
act  upon  oxide  of  copper,  which  are  commercially 
known  as  blue  and  green  verdigris.  Blue  vitriol  is 
prepared  by  dissolving  the  black  and  oxide  in  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  allowing  the  salt  to  crystallize  out, 
The  crystals  are  large  and  present  a  fine  blue  color. 
It  is  soluble  in  water,  and  is  extensively  used  by  the 
dyer  and  calico-printer  for  the  production  of  several 
blue  and  green  colors. 
21 


322  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

COPPER  ALLOYS. 

BRASS. 

Messing,    Laiton,    Messing. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc.  In  the  manu- 
facture of  brass  on  the  large  scale,  two  parts  by 
weight  of  copper  to  one  part  of  zinc  are  used,  the 
zinc  being  one-halt  the  weight  of  the  copper;  but 
alloys  are  made  for  particular  purposes  with  less  or 
greater  proportions  of  zinc.  Thus,  where  a  material 
of  more  than  ordinary  tenacity  is  required,  the  zinc 
is  reduced  to  one-fourth  the  weight  of  the  copper ; 
and  where  an  alloy  of  a  hard  and  brittle  nature,  pos- 
sessing little  resisting  power,  is  wished  for,  the  zinc 
is  increased  to  an  amount  equal  with  the  copper  or 
greater. 

For  ordinary  purposes,  brass  is  first  cast  into 
plates  of  about  100  pounds  weight,  and  one-quarter 
to  one-half  inch  thick,  which  can  be  readily  broken 
up,  remelted,  and  cast  in  a  mold  to  any  desired  shape 
or  size. 

Brass  is  very  extensively  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  door-handles,  window-shutter  knobs,  etc.; 
and,  since  the  introduction  of  gas,  though  the  brazen 
candle-sticks  have  almost  ceased  to  exist  in  town, 
yet  the  immense  number  of  stop-cocks,  and  brass 
pendants  and  brackets  required,  has  given  a  consid- 
erable impetus  to  the  brass  manufacture. 

BRONZE. 

Bronze,    Bronze,    Broas. 

Bronze  is  a  reddish-yellow,  fine  grained  alloy  of 
copper  and  tin,  in  variable  proportions.  Bronze, 
when  well  made,  is,  excepting  gold,  platinum,  and 
some  of  the  rare  metals,  the  most  durable  metallic 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  323 

material  with  which  we  are  acquainted ;  and  this, 
coupled  with  its  extreme  hardness,  rendering  it  diffi- 
cult for  time  and  ordinary  wear  and  tear  to  efface 
inscriptions  or  medallions  stamped  on  it,  has  led  the 
mint  in  France,  some  }rears  ago,  to  issue  a  bronze 
coinage  instead  of  copper. 

The  principal  varieties  of  bronze  have  the  folio  wing 
average  compositions : 

COPPER.   TIN. 

Brass  ordnance  or  bronze  cannon...  9  1 

Bronze  for  toothed  wheels 10  1 

"        "    mat'l  instruments.. 12  1 

"        "    bearings  of  machinery 8  1 

Chinese  gongs  and  cymbals 5  1 

Musical  bells 6  1 

House        "    4  1 

Large        "    3  1 

Telescope  or  speculum  metal 2  1 

Recently,  bronze  has  been  deposited  on  small  stat- 
ues and  other  articles,  in  greater  or  less  thickness,  by 
the  electro-plate  process,  forming  very  pleasing  orna- 
ments at  a  cheaper  rate  than  ordinary  bronze  orna- 
ments can  be  purchased  for.  The  same  process  has 
been  suggested  for  coating  those  parts  of  machinery 
which  are  liable  to  rust. 

Speculum  metal  is  a  hard  and  brittle  alloy  used  for 
making  the  reflectors  of  telescopes  and  other  instru- 
ments, usually  consisting  of  copper  and  tin  in  vari- 
ous proportions,  one  of  the  best  being  that  in  which 
there  are  126.4  parts  of  copper  to  58.9  parts  of  tin, 
with  sometimes  a  small  proportion  of  arsenic,  anti- 
mony, or  zinc  added  to  improve  the  whiteness. 

Pinchbeck  (Mannheim  gold)  is  a  yellow  metal,  com- 
posed of  about  three  ounces  of  zinc  to  one  pound  of 
copper.  It  is  much  used  as  an  imitation  of  gold  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheap  jewelry. 


324  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

Tombac  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc,  resembling 
brass,  and  containing  about  84  percent  of  copper; 
it  is  also  called  German  or  Dutch  brass.  It  is  very 
malleable  and  ductile,  and  when  beaten  into  thin 
leaves  is  sometimes  called  Dutch  metal.  The  addition 
of  arsenic  makes  white  tombac. 

LEAD. 
Blei,  Plomb,  Ely. 

Pure  lead  is  of  very  rare  occurrence.  Almost  all 
the  lead  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  galena,  the 
native  sulphide  of  lead.  Spain  was  formerly  the  chief 
lead-producing  country,  but  of  late  years  the  United 
States  has  furnished  the  largest  quantity  of  this 
metal.  Much  of  this  is  found  associated  -with  silver 
ore;  the  rest,  a  relatively  small  amount,  comes  from 
the  lead-producing  districts  of  the  Mississippi  valley. 
The  most  productive  lead-mines  in  the  world  are  in 
Illinois  and  Colorado.  Very  rich  deposits  are  also 
worked  in  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Missouri.  In  the 
Missouri  mines,  zinc  is  found  combined  with  the  lead. 
Owing  to  the  extent  to  which  silver  mining  is  carried 
on,  Colorado  produces  immense  quantities  of  lead;; 
nearly  all  the  silver  found  in  the  state  being  com- 
bined with  the  lead.  This  metal  is  also  a  consider-; 
able  product  of  Germany  and  Great  Britain. 

Lead  is  of  a  bluish-white  color  of  considerable 
brilliancy,  which  soon  disappears  on  expostire  to 
the  air,  owing  to  the  formation  of  a  thin  film  of 
oxide.  It  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be  readily  cut  with 
a  knife,  or  may  be  made  to  take  impressions,  and 
leaves  a  streak  upon  a  paper.  It  may  be  cut  or 
beaten  into  thin  sheets,  but  in  ductility  and  tenacity 
it  is  low  in  the  scale  of  metals.  It  is  readily  fusible 
at  a  temperature  of  about  625°,  and  at  a  higher 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  325 

temperature  it  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  the 
oxide  thus  formed  volatilizes  in  the  form  of  white 
fumes. 

Lead  is  an  important  metal  in  the  arts.  Rolled 
out  into  sheets,  it  is  largely  used  for  roofing  houses, 
for  water  cisterns,  and  for  water-pipes.  It  is  also  of 
great  service  in  the  construction  of  large  chambers 
for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid.  Alloyed  with 
antimony,  etc.,  it  is  largely  consumed  for  type  metal, 
and  with  tin  for  solder.  Its  value  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  shot  is  •well  known. 

Small  shot  is  of  various  sizes,  from  swan-shot, 
nearly  as  large  as  peas,  to  dust  shot.  It  is  made  by 
dropping  molten  lead  through  a  colander  in  rapid 
motion  from  a  considerable  height  into  water.  The 
lead  falls  in  small  globular  drops.  The  holes  in  the 
colanders  vary  in  size,  according  to  the  denomina- 
tion of  the  shot,  No.  0,  requiring  holes  l-50th  inch  in 
diameter,  No.  9  l-360th  inch.  A  small  portion  of 
arsenic  is  melted  with  the  lead. 

Litharge  is  a  yellowish-red  substance,  obtained  as 
an  amorphous  powder,  or  crystallized  in  fine  scales, 
by  heating  lead  moderately  in  a  current  of  air  or  by 
calcining  lead  nitrate  or  carbonate.  It  is  used  in 
making  flint  glass,  in  glazing  earthenware,  in  making 
red  lead  or  minium,  etc. 

GALENA. 

Bleiglaaz,  Galene,  Blyglans. 

Galena  is  a  mineral  which  is  essentially  a  sulphuret 
of  lead;  but  usually  containing  a  little  silver,  and 
sometimes  copper,  zinc,  antimony,  or  selenium.  It  is 
of  a  lead-gray  color,  with  a  metallic  luster,  is  found 
massive  or  crystallized  in  cubes  or  octahedrons.  It 
is  very  easily  broken,  and  its  fragments  are  cubical. 


326  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

Almost  all  lead  of  commerce  is  obtained  from  it. 
It  sometimes  contains  so  much  silver  that  the  sepa- 
ration of  that  metal  is  profitably  carried  on. 

TIN. 

Zinn,  Bitain,  Tenn. 

Tin  is  the  only  valuable  metal  that  is  not  produced 
in  quantity  in  the  United  States.  Deposits  of  it  exist 
in  the  Black  Hills  and  in  San  Bernardino,  Cal.  Hith- 
erto, nearly  all  the  tin  used  in  this  country  has  been 
imported.  The  mines  in  the  southwest  of  England 
have  furnished  much  of  the  -world's  supply  of  tin, 
and  are  still  quite  productive ;  but  the  richest  tin 
mines  in  the  world  are  on  the  islands  of  Banca  and 
Billet  on,  south  of  Indo-China,  and  in  Australia.  The 
center  of  the  tin  trade  is  Singapore,  where  the  prod- 
uct of  the  mines  of  Banca  and  adjoining  regions  is 
shipped  to  market. 

Tin  is  of  a  beautiful  silvery-white  color,  and  a 
high  metallic  luster.  It  possesses  a  crystallized 
texture,  and  may  be  obtained  in  well  formed  crystals 
of  the  pyramidal  or  tetragonal  prisms;  and  it  is 
in  consequence  of  this  crystalline  texture  that  a  bar 
of  tin,  when  bent,  emits  a  creaking  sound,  termed 
the  cry  of  the  tin.  Tin  is  soft  and  very  malleable, 
and  can  be  beaten  out  into  very  thin  laminae,  in 
which  form  it  is  known  as  tinfoil.  At  a  temperature 
of  about  212°  F.  its  ductility  is  considerable,  and  it 
may  then  be  drawn  into  wire.  It  melts  at  a  temper- 
ature of  442°  F.  and  at  a  higher  temperature  burns 
with  a  brilliant  white  light.  At  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, it  is  very  slightly  acted  on  by  exposure  to  the 
air  or  to  moisture. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  327 

Block  tin  is  cast  into  blocks  and  partially  refined, 
but  containing  small  quantities  of  various  impurities, 
as  copper,  lead,  iron,  arsenic,  etc.;  solid  tin  is  dis- 
tinguished from  tin  plate.  The  finest  block  tin  is 
termed  grain  tin. 

Owing  to  the  development  of  our  canning  indus- 
tries, the  United  States  is  the  greatest  tin-consuming 
nation.  Tin  is  mainly  employed  in  coating  thin 
sheets  of  iron  or  steel  to  protect  the  latter  from  rust. 
Tin  itself  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  in  sheet  form. 
Tinned  iron  or  steel  is  largely  employed  'for  house- 
hold utensils,  for  roofing,  and  other  purposes,  as  well 
as  in  the  canning  industries.  A  large  part  of  our  iron 
imports  from  Great  Britain  is  classed  under  the  head 
of  "tin."  Tin  enters  into  the  alloys  known  as  pew- 
ter, bronze,  type  metal,  and  britannia. 

Pewter  is  a  common  and  very  useful  alloy  of  the 
metals  tin  and  lead.  Two  other  kinds  of  pewter 
have  a  more  compound  character.  Common,  or  ley 
pewter,  consists  of  4  parts  of  tin  and  1  part  of  lead ; 
plate  pewter  is  made  of  100  parts  of  tin,  8  of  anti- 
mony, 2  each  of  bismuth  and  copper;  another  kind, 
called  "trifle,"  is  composed  of  83  parts  of  tin  and  17 
parts  of  antimony.  Although  these  are  the  standard 
formulas,  each  kind  is  often  much  varied  to  suit  the 
purposes  of  the  manufacturer ;  the  chief  alteration 
being  the  addition  of  a  large  proportion  of  lead  to 
the  last,  and  a  large  increase  of  the  same  metal  in 
the  other  two. 

Britannia  metal  is  an  alloy  very  largely  employed 
in  the  construction  of  the  cheaper  kinds  of  tea  and 
coffee  pots,  teaspoons,  etc.  The  proportion  of  the 
metals  used  in  its  manufacture  is  various,  but  the 
average  composition  in  100  parts  is,  tin,  85Yz ',  anti- 
mony, 10^;  zinc,  3;  copper,  1.  Britannia  metal  is 


328  THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 

harder  than  pewter,  hence  vessels  or  spoons  made  of 
it  are  not  so  liable  to  lose  their  shape  or  to  be 
indented  with  a  slight  blow. 

BISMUTH,  OR  TIN   GLASS. 

Wismuth,  Aschbler,  Bismuth,  Wismuth. 

Bismuth  is  a  brittle  metal  of  a  crystalline  texture, 
and  with  a  white  color  tinged  with  a  faint  red  hue. 
It  is  found  native  in  Germany,  France,  Sweden,  etc., 
where  it  occurs  in  veins  passing  through  other  rocks. 
The  principal  natural  source  is  an  impure  metal ;  but 
it  is  likewise  found  in  combination  with  oxygen,  sul- 
phur, and  arsenic. 

The  pure  metal  is  generally  obtained  by  heating 
the  impure  native  bismuth  in  iron  tubes  in  a  furnace, 
when  the  metal  volatilizes,  and  the  vapor,  condens- 
ing into  a  liquid  in  a  somewhat  cool  part  of  the  tube, 
runs  into  a  receiving  vessel,  and  is  ultimately  trans- 
ferred to  moulds,  where  it  solidifies  with  a  crystalline 
texture. 

Bismuth  is  seldom  employed  by  itself  in  the  arts. 
The  alloys  of  bismuth  are  of  considerable  commercial 
importance.  In  combination  with  tin,  bismuth 
forms  an  alloy  possessing  great  sonorousness,  and  is 
therefore  suitable  for  bells.  Bismuth  forms  several 
compounds  of  service  in  the  arts  and  in  medicine.  It 
is  employed  in  the  porcelain  manufactures  as  an 
agent  for  fixing  the  gilding,  and  for  increasing  the 
fusibility  effluxes,  and  at  the  same  time  neutralizing 
the  colors  which  are  often  communicated  with  them. 
The  basic  nitrate  of  bismuth  receives  the  names  of 
pearl  white,  pearl  powder,  blanc  de  fard,  perlweiss, 
and  schmink-weiss,  etc. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES.  329 

ZINC  OR  SPELTER. 
Zink,   Zinc,  Zink. 

Zinc  is  never  found  in  the  native  state;  the  chief  ore 
for  this  metal  is  calamine  and  smithsonite.  The  ore 
is  first  roasted  and  glowed  with  coal  in  order  to  re- 
duce it,  but,  as  the  zinc  is  volatile,  this  operation 
must  be  performed  in  separate  vessels  of  distillation. 
Zinc  is  produced  chiefly  in  Germany.  Belgium  is  sec- 
ond in  the  amount  of  zinc  mined,  and  the  United 
States  third.  In  the  United  States,  this  metal  is 
found  mainly  in  Missouri  and  Kansas ;  it  is  usually 
combined  with  lead  and  sulphur.  Valuable  deposits 
are  -worked  in  New  Jersey  and  in  Eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

The  commercial  zinc  obtained  by  the  ordinary 
methods  of  extraction  usually  contains  a  small  quan- 
tity of  lead,  iron,  and  carbon,  with  occasional  traces 
of  arsenic  and  copper.  In  order  to  obtain  it  in  a 
chemically  pure  state,  a  stream  of  sulphureted  hydro- 
gen is  passed  through  a  slightly  acidulated  solution 
of  sulphate  of  zinc,  and,  after  the  removal  of  any  pre- 
cipitate that  may  be  found,  the  solution  is  boiled  so 
as  to  expel  the  gas,  after  which  the  zinc  is  precipi- 
tated in  the  form  of  Oxide,  ZnO,  by  the  addition  of 
carbonate  of  soda. 

Zinc  is  of  a  bluish- white  color,  externally  lustrous, 
and,  when  broken,  exhibits  a  foliaceous  crystalline 
fracture.  At  an  ordinary  temperature  it  is  somewhat 
brittle ;  but  when  heated  to  above  212°  F.  it  becomes 
perfectly  ductile  and  malleable,  and  may  be  drawn 
out  into  wire  or  beaten  into  thin  plates.  It  fuses  at 
773°  P.,  and  at  a  white  heat  may  be  volatilized.  On 
exposure  to  the  air,  zinc  soon  loses  its  metallic  luster, 


330  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

and  assumes  its  gray  appearance,  in  consequence  of 
its  surface  becoming  oxidized,  while  the  metal  beneath 
is  thus  protected  from  further  change — a  property 
which  renders  this  metal  especially  useful  for  many 
economical  purposes.  Zinc  has  no  action  on  water, 
at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  if  a  mineral  acid 
be  present,  it  readily  decomposes  water,  and  is 
employed  to  decompose  water  diluted  with  sulphuric 
acid,  when  hydrogen  is  required. 

Zinc  is  beaten  into  sheets  which  are  used  for  roof- 
ing, bath-tubs,  water-tanks,  spouting,  and  the  like. 
A  considerable  quantity  is  consumed  for  name-plates, 
for  engraving  upon,  and  for  galvanic  batteries. 

Perforated  sheets  with  various  ornamental  pat- 
terns are  manufactured  for  screens,  blinds,  light  fences, 
and  similar  objects.  As  a  material  for  casting  artis- 
tic work,  zinc  possesses  the  desirable  properties  of 
having  a  slow  melting  point,  and  of  taking  a  sharp 
impression  from  the  mould,  so  as  to  require  but  little 
labor  from  the  chaser;  it  has  also  a  considerable 
hardness.  It  has,  in  consequence,  become  a  favorite 
material  for  making  casts  of  statues,  statuettes,  and 
different  kinds  of  ornaments.  Of  late  years,  zinc  has 
been  applied  with  great  success  to  the  coating  of 
sheet  iron  for  roofing  and  other  purposes,  and  also 
for  coating  various  kinds  of  iron  wire,  especially  tele- 
graphic wire. 

Oxide  of  zinc  is  now  employed  to  a  large  extent  as 
a  white  pigment.  It  is  of  a  purer  color  than  white 
lead,  does  not  tarnish  and  blacken  like  it  with  sul- 
phureted  hydrogen,  and  is  much  healthier  for  opera- 
tive painters,  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  deficient  in 
body.  It  is  also  used  as  an  ingredient  in  pottery 
colors.  An  impure  sulphate  of  zinc,  known  as  white 
vitriol,  is  also  employed  in  various  arts. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES.  331 

ANTIMONY. 

Antimon,  Antimoine,  Antimoa. 

The  principal  natural  sources  of  antimony  are  gray 
or  crude  antimony  of  commerce,  which  is  the  impure 
tersulphuret  of  antimony ;  and  native  antimony,  in 
which  it  occurs  in  the  metallic  state  associated  with 
silver,  iron,  and  other  metals. 

The  extraction  of  antimony  from  its  ores  is  mainly 
carried  on  at  Linz,  in  Germany,  and  in  Great  Britain, 
which  receives  its  supply  of  ore  from  Singapore  and 
Borneo. 

Antimony  is  a  brittle  metal  of  a  flaky,  crystalline 
texture,  and  a  bluish-white  color.  It  is  readily 
reduced  to  powder  by  ordinary  pulverization ;  when 
heated  to  840°  F.,  it  fuses.  When  raised  in  tempera- 
ture in  contact  with  the  air,  it  burns  with  a  white 
light. 

Exposed  to  the  air  at  ordinary  temperatures,  anti- 
mony does  not  tarnish  or  rust ;  and  this  property, 
combined  with  the  hardness  of  the  metal  and  its 
compounds,  renders  it  of  essential  service  in  the  use- 
ful arts,  in  the  construction  of  alloys,  such  as  britan- 
nia  metal,  type  metal,  and  plate  pewter.  It  is  also 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  the  large,  concave 
mirrors  used  in  astronomical  observations. 

IRON. 

Eisen,  Fer,  Jem. 

Iron  is  the  most  widely  distributed  and  most  useful 
of  all  metals.  Although  hardly  a  metal  exists  with 
which  iron  is  not  associated,  yet  it  is  rarely  found  in 
its  pure  state,  but  it  frequently  occurs  in  combi- 


332  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

nation  with  oxygen    and  sulphur,  the  chief  kinds 
being : 

1.  Magnetic  ore,  or  black  oxide  of  iron,  which  is 
the  richest,  containing  nothing  but  oxygen  and  iron, 
and  gives  73  per  cent  of  iron  by  weight.    It  occurs  in 
dark,  heavy  masses  or  black  crystals.    Dannemora, 
in  Sweden,  is  famous  for  this  ore ;  also  Russia  has 
great  iron  works  in  Ural.    So  also  have  Canada  and 
several  places  in  the  United  States,  as  Virginia,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey,  etc.    The  rock  formations  in 
which  magnetic  iron  ore  occurs  verv  rarely  contain 
coal,  hence  it  is  almost  always  smelted  with  wood- 
charcoal,  which,  as  it  contains  no  sulphur,  is  one 
great  cause  of  the  superiority  of  the  iron  produced 
from  it. 

2.  Red  haematite  differs  from  the  last  only  in  con- 
taining proportionally  a  little  more  oxygen ;  it  leaves 
70  per  cent  of  iron  by  weight.    There  are  several  vari- 
eties of  this  ore,  but  only  two  need  to  be  referred  to. 

The  one  variety  is  specular  iron,  which  occurs  in 
crystalline  masses  in  the  island  of  Elba  and  many 
other  places.  It  is  of  a  steel-gray  color,  assuming  a 
red  tint  in  thin  fragments  and  when  scratched.  The 
other  variety  is  kidney  ore,  the  shape  of  which  is  only 
assumed  in  the  cavities  of  massive  deposits.  Red 
haematite  is  sometimes  called  a  blood-stone.  It  is 
used  for  polishing  metals,  and  yields  a  blood-red 
powder,  used  as  a  pigment. 

3.  Brown  haematite  has  the  same  composition  as 
red  haematite,  except  that  it  contains  about  14  per 
cent    of  water.     It   is   generally    found     in    small 
rounded  nodules,   and  is  also  called    pea  iron  ore. 
When  mixed  with  iron  or  clay,  it  forms  the  pigments 
yellow  ochre  and  brown  umber.    It  is  the  ore  chiefly 
smelted  in  France  and  Germany. 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  333 

4.  Carbonate  of  iron,  when  found  in  a  compara- 
tively pure  and  crystallized  state,  is  known  as  spathic, 
spathose,  or  sparry  iron  ore ;  but  when  impure  and 
earthy,  as  clay  ironstone  and  blackband  ironstone. 
In  its  purest  form  it  contains  48  per  cent  of  iron  ;  and 
in  color  it  varies  from  white  to  buff  or  dark  brown. 

In  order  to  extract  iron  from  the  ore,  coal  and  ore 
are  put  together  into  the  blast  furnace  with  varying 
amount  of  limestone.  Under  the  influence  of  the 
intense  heat,  the  iron  separates  from  the  ore,  melts, 
and  collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  while  the 
other  elements  of  the  ore  form  a  slag  with  the  lime- 
stone. The  latter  is  light,  and  floats  on  the  molten 
metal.  This  operation  is  called  smelting.  The  mol- 
ten iron  drawn  off  from  the  furnace  is  the  pig-iron  of 
commerce.  A  ' '  pig ' '  weighs  about  a  hundred  pounds, 
and  is  intended  to  be  a  load  for  one  man.  The  prod- 
uct of  the  iron  regions  is  reckoned  in  the  amount 
of  this  pig-iron. 

Chemically  pure  iron  does  not  appear  in  trade  and 
is  of  little  use.  The  common  iron  contains  different 
quantities  of  coal,  whereby  it  receives  different  quali- 
ties depending  upon  the  quantity  of  coal  it  contains, 
and  is  employed  in  three  ways, — cast  iron,  wrought 
Or  bar  iron,  and  steel. 

Cast  iron  is  an  impure  variety  of  iron,  containing 
from  3  to  6  per  cent  of  carbon,  a  part  of  which  is 
united  with  a  part  of  the  iron,  as  a  carbide,  and  the 
rest  is  uncombined,  as  graphite.  If  there  is  a  little 
free  carbon,  the  product  is  white  iron ;  if  much  of  the 
carbon  has  separated  as  graphite,  it  is  called  gray 
iron. 

The  white  iron  is  of  an  almost  silver  color,  lustrous, 
•with  a  crystalline  fracture.  Perfectly  white  cast  iron 
does  not  occur  in  trade,  but  is  used  in  the  preparation 
of  steel. 


334  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

Gray  iron  is  of  a  darker  color,  from  light-gray  to 
iron-black.  It  contains  more  carbon  and  is  less  lus- 
trous. 

Cast  iron,  as  the  crudest,  cheapest,  and  most  fusi- 
ble, is  used  for  the  heavy  portions  of  engineering 
\vork  such  as  bed  plates  for  machines,  cylinders,  col- 
umns, cisterns,  low-pressure  boilers,  water  and  gas 
pipes,  rollers,  girders,  and  the  like.  A  large  quan- 
tity is  consumed  in  the  manufacture  of  "hollow- 
ware,"  which  includes  pots,  pans,  and  other  cooking 
vessels.  For  all  kinds  of  ornamental  objects,  again, 
it  is  almost  exclusively  used,  because  here  its  prop- 
erty of  being  readily  cast  into  moulds  gives  it  a  great 
advantage  on  the  score  of  cheapness. 

Wrought  or  malleable  iron  differs  from  cast  iron  in 
being  almost  free  from  carbon.  The  great  object  in 
the  processes  for  the  conversion  of  cast  into  wrought 
iron,  accordingly,  is  to  deprive  the  former  of  its  car- 
bon. But  it  is  also  very  desirable  to  get  rid  of  dele- 
terious ingredients,  such  as  silicon,  sulphur,  and  phos- 
phorus. The  ordinary  processes  for  the  manufacture 
of  wrought  iron  are  refining,  puddling,  shingling,  and 
rolling. 

Wrought  iron  differs  considerably  in  its  properties 
from  cast  iron.  The  latter  is  practically  incompressi- 
ble, but  it  can  be  comparatively  easily  torn  asunder. 

Wrought  iron,  on  the  contrary,  possesses  a  great 
tenacity ;  it  is,  moreover,  very  malleable  and  ductile, 
especially  at  a  high  temperature,  so  that  it  can  be 
rolled  into  sheets  as  thin  as  paper,  or  drawn  into 
the  finest  wire.  Further,  it  possesses  the  valuable 
property  of  welding — that  is,  two  pieces  can  be  com- 
pletely united  by  hammering  together  at  a  white 
heat. 

Wrought  iron  is  largely  employed  for  the  innumer- 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  335 

able  variety  of  articles  included  under  the  general 
term  of  ''hard ware,"  such  as  locks,  kegs,  hinges, 
bolts,  nails,  screws,  wire-work,  and  so-called  tin 
plate,  which  is  merely  sheet  iron  dipped  in  melted  tin. 
It  is  the  mainstay  ot  the  railways  and  the  electric 
telegraph,  and  has  almost  displaced  timber  as  a 
material  for  steam-ships  and  sailing-vessels.  It  is 
also  used  for  roofs  and  bridges  of  large  size. 

Steel  is  a  variety  of  iron  intermediate  in  composi- 
tion and  properties  between  wrought  iron  and  cast 
iron.  When  rich  in  carbon,  it  closely  resembles  cast 
iron  in  composition,  except  that  it  is  more  free  from 
impurities.  In  making  any  kind  of  steel,  the  getting 
rid  of  silicon,  phosphorus,  and  sulphur  is  very 
important. 

Steel  possesses  several  valuable  properties  which 
do  not  belong  to  either  cast  or  wrought  iron.  It  is 
harder,  denser,  and  whiter  in  color.  It  is  also  more 
elastic,  takes  a  higher  polish,  and  rusts  less  easily. 
Like  wrought  iron  it  is  also  weldable.  But  its  most 
characteristic  property  consists  in  its  admitting  of 
being  tempered  at  will  to  any  degree  of  hardness. 
If  a  piece  of  steel  be  heated  to  redness  and  plunged 
into  water,  it  is  made  hard  and  brittle ;  but  if  it 
be  again  heated  and  slowly  cooled,  its  original  soft- 
ness is  restored.  By  gently  reheating  the  steel,  it 
will  acquire  a  gradation  of  tints  indicating  various 
degrees  of  hardness,  beginning  with  pale  straw  color 
and  passing  successively  to  full  yellow,  brown,  pur- 
ple, and  finally  to  blue.  The  straw  color  is  the  result 
of  a  temperature  of  about  440°  and  blue  of  about 
570°  P.,  the  former  being  the  hardest  and  the  latter 
the  softest  tempering. 

Steel  is  used,  not  only  in  the  manufacture  of  small 
articles,  as  files,  edge  tools,  knives,  and  other  cutlery; 
but  also  in  the  manufacture  of  field  guns,  heavy 


336  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

shafting,  tires,  rails,  boiler  plates,  and  the  like.  The 
superior  tensile  strength  of  steel,  -which  is  about 
double  that  of  malleable  iron,  gives  it  a  great  advan- 
tage \vhere  lightness  is  required.  Large  numbers  of 
steamships  are  now  being  built  of  steel. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  steel ;  the  most 
important  are  as  follows : 

Blistered  steel,  a  crude  steel  formed  from  wrought 
iron;  so  called  because. of  its  blistered  surface. 

Cast  steel,  a  fine  variety  of  steel,  originally  made 
by  smelting  blistered  or  cementation  steel;  hence, 
ordinarily,  steel  of  any  process  of  production  -when 
remelted  and  cast. 

Chromium  steel,  a  hard,  tenacious  variety  contain- 
ing little  chromium. 

Mild  steel,  a  kind  of  steel  having  a  lower  propor- 
tion of  carbon  than  ordinary  steel,  rendering  it 
softer  and  more  malleable. 

Puddle  steel,  a  variety  of  steel  produced  from  cast 
iron  by  the  puddling  process. 

Damask  steel,  steel  of  the  variety  originally  made 
at  Damascus,  famous  for  its  hardness,  and  its  beauti- 
ful texture,  ornamented  with  waving  lines ;  especially 
that  which  is  inlaid  with  damaskeening. 

Silver  steel,  an  alloy  of  steel  with  a  very  small 
proportion  of  silver. 

About  four-fifths  of  the  world's  supply  of  iron  comes 
from  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  Germany. 
The  United  States,  in  addition  to  the  vast  domestic 
production  of  iron,  imports  iron  and  steel  and  their 
products  to  the  value  of  about  $40,000,000  annually. 
The  greater  part  of  this  is  derived  from  England. 
The  United  States  buys  iron  ore  from  Spain;  -wrought 
iron,  cast  iron,  iron  wire,  rods  from  England  and 
Germany;  and  bar-iron  from  Sweden  and  Norway, 
England  and  Germany. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  337 

The  export  of  iron  from  the  United  States  is  incon- 
siderable; but  of  its  manufactured  products,  fire- 
arms, hardware,  tools,  and  machinery  are  exported 
to  all  parts  of  the  world.  The  annual  export  of 
these  aggregates  about  $10,000,000  in  value. 

COBALT. 

Kobalt,  Cobalt,  Kobalt. 

Cobalt  is  a  metal  of  no  use  in  the  arts  and  man- 
ufactures, but  forms  compounds  of  commercial 
importance.  Cobalt  is  found  naturally  in  combina- 
tion with  arsenic,  as  speiss;  in  combination  with 
arsenic  and  sulphur,  as  cobaltite  or  cobalt  glance. 
The  protoxide  of  cobalt  is  employed  in  painting  on 
porcelain,  for  producing  a  rich  blue  color. 

Taflfer  is  a  pigment,  usually  obtained  by  roasting 
cobalt  glance,  white  sand,  or  quartz,  as  a  dark 
earthy  powder.  It  consists  of  crude  cobalt  oxide,  or 
of  any  impure  cobalt  arseniate.  It  is  used  in  porce- 
lain painting,  and  in  enameling  pottery,  to  produce  a 
blue  color,  and  is  often  combined  with  smalt,  from 
which,  however,  it  is  distinct,  as  it  contains  no 
potash. 

Smalt  is  a  term  applied  to  the  deep  blue  glass, 
which  owes  its  color  to  the  presence  of  oxide  of 
cobalt,  and  which,  when  reduced  to  a  very  fine  pow- 
der, is  employed  occasionally  by  laundresses  to  col- 
lect the  yellow  color  of  newly-washed  linen,  and  by 
paper-makers  as  a  blue  pigment  for  staining  -writing 
paper.  Smalt  is  also  employed  in  the  production  of 
fresco  painting,  etc. 

NICKEL. 

Nickel  only  occurs  in  the  native  state  in  meteoric 

stones,  in  which  it  is  always  present  in  association 
22 


338  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

•with  the  iron  which  forms  the  principal  part  of  those 
masses.  It  is  found  in  Saxony,  Westphalia,  Hun- 
gary, Sweden,  etc.,  where  it  occurs  in  connection 
with  kupfernickle,  which  is  a  combination  of  nickel 
and  arsenic.  The  metal  is  obtained  on  a  large  scale 
(for  the  purpose  of  making  German  silver  and  other 
alloys)  either  from  this  compound  or  speiss  by  some- 
what complicated  chemical  processes. 

Nickel  is  a  grayish- white,  glistening  metal,  capable 
of  receiving  a  high  polish,  of  about  the  same  hard- 
ness as  iron,  and,  like  that  metal,  malleable,  and 
ductile.  It  has  the  fusibility  of  wrought  iron,  but  is 
less  readily  oxidized  than  that  metal,  since  it  remains 
unchanged  for  a  long  time  in  a  moist  atmosphere.  It 
is  strongly  magnetic,  but  loses  this  property  when 
heated  to  660°. 

ARSENIC. 

Arsenik,  Arsenic,  Arsenik. 

The  metal  arsenic  is  rarely  found  free  in  nature,  but 
in  a  state  of  combination  with  sulphur  and  metallic 
sulphurets.  Metallic  arsenic  is  very  brittle,  and  can 
easily  be  reduced  to  powder  by  hammering ;  when 
a  freshly  cut  surface  is  examined,  it  presents  a  steel- 
gray  luster,  which  tarnishes  on  exposure  to  the  air. 
When  heated  in  the  open  air,  it  burns  with  a  peculiar 
bluish  flame,  and  emits  a  peculiar  odor.  The  only 
use  in  which  metal  arsenic  is  employed  in  arts  is  in 
the  manufacture  of  leaden  shots. 

Arsenious  acid  occurs  more   frequently  in  trade. 
It  is  obtained  principally  during  the  roasting  of  the  , 
arsenical  nickel  ores  in  Germany  in  furnaces  commu- 
nicating with  flues .  When  the  arsenic  of  the  ore  burns, 
it  passes  into  the  condition  of  arsenious  acid,  and, 


THE  KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES.  339 

rising  as  vapor  into  the  somewhat  cool  flue,  is  there 
deposited  as  a  grayish  powder,  known  by  the  names 
of  smelting-house  smoke,  flowers  of  arsenic,  poison 
flour.  In  this  condition  it  is  contaminated  with 
some  impurities,  from  which  it  may  be  separated  by 
introducing  the  powder  into  an  egg-shaped  vessel, 
and  applying  heat  at  the  lower  end,  when  the  arseni- 
ous  acid  rises  in  vapor,  and  condenses  in  the  cool  end 
as  a  transparent,  glassy,  or  vitreous  substance. 

The  ordinary  arsenious  acid  is  a  white,  crystalline 
powder,  which  feels  decidedly  gritty,  like  fine  sand, 
•when  placed  between  the  teeth,  and  has  no  well- 
marked  taste.  It  is  very  heavy.  It  is  soluble  in 
•water  to  the  extent  of  1  part  of  arsenious  acid  to 
about  100  parts  of  cold  water.  When  placed  in  a 
spoon  and  heated,  it  volatilizes,  and  condenses  in 
crystals  on  any  cool  vessel  held  above.  By  these 
means  it  can  be  distinguished  from  ordinary  flour, 
which,  when  heated  -would  char,  and  leave  a  coal 
behind. 

.       MANGANESE    ORE. 

Braunstein,  Manganese  oxyde  de  gris,  Bmnsten. 

Manganese  ore  occurs  in  small  quantities  in  asso- 
ciation with  iron  in  meteoric  stones ;  with  this  excep- 
tion it  is  not  found  native.  The  metal  may  be 
obtained  by  the  reduction  of  its  sesquioxide  by  car- 
bon at  an  extreme  heat. 

Manganese  is  of  a  grayish-white  color,  presents  a 
metallic  brilliancy,  is  capable  of  a  high  degree  of  pol- 
ish, is  so  hard  as  to  scratch  glass  and  steel,  and  is 
only  fused  at  a  white  heat.  As  it  oxidizes  rapidly 
on  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  it  should  be  pre- 
served under  naphtha. 


340 


THE    KNOWLEDGE  OF  WARES. 


FOREIGN    AND    UNITED    STATES    GOLD    COINS. 

Their  weight,  fineness,  and  value  as  assayed  at  the 
United  States  mint. 


COUNTRIES. 

D  ENOMINATIONS. 

WEIGHT. 

Fineness. 

VALUE. 

New  Union  Coin.. 

0.357 

900. 

$6.642 

Belgium  

25  Francs  

0.254 

899. 

4.72 

Brazil          

20  Milreis  

0.575 

917.5 

10  906 

Central  America. 
Chili  

Two  Escudos  
10  Pesos  

0.209 
0.492 

853.5 
900. 

3.688 
9.154 

Denmark  

10  Thalers  

0.427 

895. 

7.90 

Great  Britain  
Greece  

Pound  or  Sov'n... 
20  Drachms  

0.2567 
0.185 

916.5 
900. 

4.8665 
3.443 

German  Empire  .  . 

20  Marks  

0.1735 

900. 

4.76 

Italy    

20  Lira  

0.207 

898. 

3.843 

Japan         

Yen  (new)  

0.535 

900. 

.997 

Mexico  

Doubloon  (new).. 

0.8675 

870.5 

15.611 

Netherlands  

10  Guilders  

0.215 

890. 

3.997 

Peru  

Old  Doubloon  

0.867 

868. 

15.557 

Russia      

5  Rubles  

0.210 

916. 

3.976 

100  Reals  

0.268 

89«. 

4.965 

Sweden  

Carolin,  10  francs 

0.194 

900. 

1.934 

Switzerland  \ 

20  Francs  

0.2075 

899. 

3.858 

France  ) 

Turkey  

100  Piasters  

0.731 

915. 

4.369 

Dollar  

0.05375 

900. 

1.00 

United  States  

Quarter  Eagle... 
Three  Dollar  
1  Half  Eagle  

0.13437 
0.16125 
0.26875 

900. 
90Q. 
900. 

2.50 
3.00 
5.00 

Eagle  

0.5375 

900. 

10.00 

Double  Eagle  

1.075 

900. 

20.00 

NOTE. — The  weight  is  given  in  Troy  ounces  and  decimals  of  the  same; 
the  fineness  shows  how  many  parts  in  l.OOO  are  fine  gold ;  the  value  is 
he  intrinsic  relative  value  as  compared  with  the  amount  of  fine  gold  in, 
the  United  States  coin. 


THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 


341 


FOREIGN  AND  UNITED  STATES  SILVER  COINS, 

As  assayed  at  the  United  States  mint,  the  basis  of 
valuation  being  $1.22^  per  ounce  of  standard  fine- 
ness. 


COUNTRIES. 

DENOMINATIONS. 

WEIGHT. 

Fineness. 

VALUE. 

\ustria  

New  Florin,   100 

Kreutzer  

0.397 

900 

.336 

Belgium  

Five  Francs  

0  803 

897 

98 

Brazil  

Double  Milries  

0.820 

918.5 

1.025 

Canada  

/Twenty  Cents... 

0.150 

925. 

.189 

Germany  

VT  wen  ty-five  Cts. 
(1    Mark,    100 
\     pfennig^  .... 

0.1875 
0.600 

925. 
900. 

.236 
.238 

[50  pfennig  

0.300 

900. 

.119 

Greece  

5    Drachms     100 

lepta  

0.719 

900. 

.881 

Great  Britain  
i> 

Shilling,  12  pence 
6  Penny  

0.1825 
0.09125 

924.5 
924.5 

.23 
.1212 

« 

3  Penny  

0.045625 

924.5 

.0606 

Mexico  

1  Dollar(new)  

0.8675 

903. 

1.066 

Netherlands  

2Y2  Guilders  

0  804 

944 

1.033 

Russia  

Ruble     100  co- 

pecks   

0.667 

875. 

.796 

Scandinavia  
Switzerland  1 
France  / 

Crown,  100  ore... 
Franc,    100    cen- 
times   

0.2015 
.168 

900. 
900. 

.268 
.193 

Spain  

Penta     100    cen- 

times   

.168 

900. 

.193 

Dollar  

0.859% 

900. 

Half  Dollar  

0.400 

900. 

Quarter  Dollar 

0.200 

900. 

United  States  

(Dime  

0.080 

900. 

Half  Dime     . 

0.040 

900 

Three  Cents  

0.024 

900. 

NOTE. — Weight  in  Troy  ounces ;  fineness  in  thousands. 


342  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF  WARES. 

MONEY. 

Though  we  do  not  commonly  so  regard  it,  money 
is  a  ware  possessing  functions  not  shared  by  other 
wares.  It  is  the  measure  by  which  all  other  wares 
are  determined,  and  serves  as  the  medium  by  which 
these  are  exchanged.  As  is  commonly  known,  the 
production  of  money  involves  the  use  of  raw  material, 
upon  which  labor  is  expended  in  perfecting  it,  and 
in  this  particular  it  does  not  differ  from  an  ordinary 
ware. 

The  money  of  the  world  may  properly  be  divided 
into  two  classes,  namely,  coins  and  paper  money. 
Coins  bear  an  eccentric  value  which  is  determined  by 
the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  bullion  of  which  they 
are  composed.  Paper  money  is  simply  representa- 
tive in  value,  the  material  of  which  it  is  composed 
being  of  slight  worth. 

The  standard  of  monetary  value  is  either  gold  or 
silver,  the  former  being  used  most  largely  owing 
to  its  greater  preciousness. 

The  coins  of  the  world  are  commonly  produced 
from  gold,  silver,  nickel,  copper,  and  bronze,  alloyed 
with  copper,  tin  and  zinc. 

The  process  of  minting  or  coining  money  is  briefly 
as  follows :  The  bullion  is  carefully  assayed,  and  is 
then  melted  in  pots  and  the  necessary  quantity  of 
copper  is  added  (in  the  United  States  one-tenth,  see 
fineness  in  the  annexed  table).  The  metal  is  then 
cast  into  bars  depending  in  size  upon  the  dimensions 
of  the  coin  for  which  they  are  designated.  The  pro- 
cess of  rolling  follows  that  of  casting  and  the  metal 
is  gradually  rolled  to  the  proper  thickness  by  polished 
steel  rollers,  though  the  fillets  (as  the  thinned  bars 
are  called)  are  sometimes  subjected  to  treatment  on 


THE    KNOWLKDGE   OF  WARES.  343 

the  draw-bench,  where  they  are  drawn  out  to  the 
desired  thickness  with  the  utmost  accuracy.  A  trial 
blank  is  then  cut  from  a  fillet  and  weighed ;  if  found 
to  vary  more  than  one-eighth  of  a  grain  the  whole 
fillet  is  rejected. 

The  cutting  of  the  blanks  is  accomplished  by  large 
presses,  and  is  a  very  rapid  process.  The  scraps 
left  after  cutting,  are  sent  back  to  be  remelted. 

The  blanks  are  weighed  upon  a  very  delicately 
poised  automatic  balance.  Blanks  which  come 
within  the  limit  are  dropped  into  a  box  and  passed 
on  to  be  coined.  Those  below  the  desired  weight 
are  passed  back  to  be  remelted.  The  correct  blanks 
are  rung  on  a  sounding  iron,  and  those  which  do 
not  give  a  clear  sound  are  rejected  as  dumb. 

To  insure  their  being  properly  milled  on  the  edge, 
they  are  placed  into  a  machine  which  raises  the  edge 
and  at  the  same  time  secures  their  being  perfectly 
round.  After  this  they  are  annealed  to  soften  them 
and  then  struck  with  dies  by  the  coining  press  which 
gives  them,  in  addition  to  the  impression,  a  milled 
edge.  They  are  w ashed  \vith  a  solution  of  sulphuric 
acid  and  dried  in  sawdust  find  finally  heated  in  an 
oven.  Without  these  precautions,  the  new  coins 
would  not  possess  the  beautiful  luster  which  dis- 
tinguishes them. 

It  is  found  on  examining  them  that  about  1  in  200 
are  imperfectly  finished;  these  are  rejected.  The 
coins  are  then  again  weighed  and  to  those  which 
weigh  too  heavily  a  delicate  file  is  applied  and  par- 
ticles are  removed.  The  coins  are  finally  put  into 
bags  and  stored  awaiting  circulation. 

The  paper  money  of  the  United  States  is  of  three 
kinds,  namely,  United  States  treasury  notes,  national 
bank  notes,  and  silver  certificates. 


344  THE    KNOWLEDGE   OF   WARES. 

The  paper  money  of  this  country  is  printed  upon  a 
variety  of  paper  -which  the  government  alone  man- 
ufactures. 

All  the  paper  money  is  printed  by  the  printing 
establishment  of  the  government.  The  national  bank 
notes  are  signed  by  the  president  and  cashier  of  the 
bank  from  which  they  are  issued.  The  silver  certifi- 
cates differ  from  the  treasury  notes  only  in  the  fact 
that  for  each  certificate  issued  a  corresponding  sum 
of  silver  is  placed  into  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States. 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


A, 

PAGE. 

Acacia  Wood 157 

Agate 244 

Alabaster '  248 

Alcohol 89 

Alder 150 

Ale 88 

Alkannin 98 

Almonds 41 

Valencia 41 

Cicilian 41 

Malaga 41 

Provincial 41 

Barbarice 41 

Marseilles 41 

Bitter 41 

Sweet 41 

Almond  Oil 127 

Allspice 54 

Alum 283 

Ammonia 284 

Burnt 284 

Chromate  of. 285 

French 285 

Natron 284 

Potash 284 

Roman 284 

Turkish 285 

Amber 106-232 

Ambergris 205 

Ammonia,  Carbonate  of...  300 

Aniline  Dyes 101 

Black 102 

Blue 102 

Orange 102 

Red...  .  102 


PAGE. 

Violet 102 

Yellow 102 

Anchovy 201 

Animal  Charcoal 209 

Anis  53 

Annato 98 

Antimony  331 

Archil 97 

Argol 163 

Red 163 

White 163 

Arsenic 338 

Artificial  Graphite 265 

Asafcetida 115 

Asbestos 301 

Ash 152 

Asphalt 105 

Azulin  102 

B. 

Baking  Powder 164 

Balsams 110 

Copaiva 110 

Mecca  110 

Peru 110 

Fluid  Storax 110 

Tolu 110 

Bamboo 140 

Barley 27 

Bassa 117 

Bay  Leaves 63 

Beans 31 

China 32 

Egyptian 32 

Harricot 32 


346 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

String 32 

Pole 32 

Bush 32 

Lima 32 

Bedellium 115 

Beech 149 

Beech-de-Mer 227 

Beer 86 

Bavarian 88 

Austrian 88 

Bohemian 88 

Winter 87 

Lager 88 

Benzine 113-259 

Benzoin 104 

Bergamot  Oil 112 

Beryl 239 

Siberian 239 

Brazil 239 

Birch 150 

Bismuth 328 

White 269 

Bitter  Almond  Oil 112 

Bitter  Water 283 

Black  Basalt 316 

Black  Chalk 267 

Blue  Vitriol 286 

Bole 275 

Bones 184 

Boneblack 209 

Borax 296 

Boxwood 156 

Bran 29 

Brass 322 

Brazilian  Wood 97 

Brilliant 102 

Bristles 179 

Britannia  Metal 327 

Bronze 322 

Speculum  Metal 323 

Chinese  Gongs 323 

Chinese  Cymbals 323 

Musical    Bells 323 

House  "     323 

Large  "     323 

Tombac 324 

Pinchbeck 323 

Bronze  Colors 276 


PAGE. 

Gold 276 

Silver 277 

Mosaic 277 

Buckwheat  Grits 29 

Building  Paper 147 

Butter 190 

Butterine 196 

C. 

Calaite 241 

Calico 135 

Plain 135 

Sarsenet 135 

Printed 135 

Percale 135 

Cretonne 135 

Indian 135 

Cambric 136 

Camphor 113 

Camwood 97 

Canned  Goods 47 

Fruits 48 

Vegetables 48 

Caoutchine 259 

Caoutchouc 118 

Capers 58 

Nonpareilles 58 

Capuzins 58 

Surfines 58 

Capottes 58 

Fines 58 

Mi-fines 58 

Communes 58 

Caramel  Malt  Coffee 77 

Carbonate  of  Ammonia...  3-00 

Aqua  Ammonia 300 

Carbonate  of  Magnesia...  300 

Cardamom 50 

Cardamom  Oil 50 

Carragreen 160 

Carraway  Seed 53 

Carthamin 98 

Cashew  Wood 157 

Cashmere 178 

Cassava 36 

Castoreum 205 

Russian....                         ..  205 


CONTENTS  AND  GLOSSARY. 


347 


PAGE. 

American 205 

Catgut 183 

Cat's  Eye 243 

Caviar 203 

Black 204 

May 204 

Red 204 

Bottarge 204 

Cedar  Wood 155 

Celluloid 113 

Cement 250 

Portland 250 

Pozzolane 250 

Trosz 250 

Cereals 25 

Chair  Rattans 140 

Chalcedony 242 

Chalk 266 

Red 266 

White 266 

Black 267 

Chamott  Stones 307 

Champaign 84 

Charcoal 158 

Cheese 196 

Young  American 197 

Brick 197 

Cheddars 197 

Edam 197 

Limburger 197 

Chester 197 

•Swiss 197 

Brie 197 

Roquefort 197 

Chestnuts 45 

Chicory 77 

Chloric  Acid 295 

Chloride  t.f  Calcium 294 

Chloride  of  Tin 293 

Chloride  of  Lime 295 

Chocolate 41 

Chrysoberyl 238 

ChromateofLead 270 

Chromate  of  Potash 296 

Red 296 

Yellow 296 

Cider 86 

Apple 86 


PAGE. 

Pear 86 

Peach 86 

Cigars 68 

Cigarettes 69 

Cinnabar 271 

Cinnamon 73 

White 74 

Black 74 

Cassia 74 

Clove 74 

Cinnamon  Flowers 61 

Cinnamon  Oil 112 

Citron 48 

Citron  Oil 112 

Clay  Pipes 303 

Turkish 303 

Hungarian 303 

Common 303 

Cloths 177 

Clover  Seed 56 

Cloves 59 

Coal 261 

Anthracite 262 

Bituminous 262 

Splint  or  Hard 263 

Cherry  or  Soft 263 

Caking 263 

Brown 263 

Coal  Tar 259 

Cobalt 337 

Cochineal 222 

Mexican 223 

Honduras 224 

Spanish 224 

East  Indian 224 

Cocoa 39 

Soconusa 39 

Oaxaca 39 

Venizuela 39 

Oil 40 

Butter 40 

Shell 40 

Theobromine 40 

Cocoanuts 46 

Codfish 199 

Ling 199 

Stockfish 1 99 

Dried  Fish....  .   199 


348 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

Sounds 199 

Coffee 37 

Mocha 38 

Bourbon 38 

Java 38 

Ceylon 38 

Menado 39 

Laguayra 39 

Puerto 39 

Cabello 39 

Maracaibo 39 

Rio 39 

Nicaragua 39 

Cognac 91 

Coins 342 

Coke 264 

Cologne 112-276 

Colophony 105 

Common  Salt 291 

Rock 292 

Sea 292 

Spring 292 

Dairy 293 

Bromide 293 

Chloride  of  Lime 293 

Concrete 250 

Copal 107 

Copper 319 

Copper  Alloys 322 

Copperas 285 

Coral 228 

Red 228 

Black 228 

Coriander 53 

Cork 74 

Stoppers 75 

Soles 75 

Coal 75 

Corundum 236 

Cosmetics 269 

Cotton 129 

North  American 130 

West  Indian 132 

East  Indian 132 

African 132 

European 132 

Australian 132 

Statistics 133 


PAGE. 

Cotton  Batton 137 

Cotton  Goods 135 

Calico 135 

Sarsenet 135 

Prints 135 

Drill 136 

Babbinet 136 

Barchent 136 

Pique 136 

Velvety 136 

Cotton-seed  Oil 126 

Cotton  Yarn 134 

Hand  made 134 

Machine  made 134 

Crabs 226 

Crayon 266 

Crawfish 225 

Creosote 114 

Cream  of  Tartar 163 

Croton  Oil 127 

Currants 42 

D. 

Damask 136 

Cotton 136 

Linen 139 

Dates 43 

Dextrin 117 

Diamond 235 

Brilliants 236 

Rosettes 236 

Pink 235 

Yellow 235 

Blue 235 

Green 235 

Brown 235 

Black 235 

Colorless 235 

Amorph 235 

Diamond  Powder 251 

Dill 53 

Dimity 136 

Diseases  of  Cereals 28 

Bunt 28 

Rust 28 

Mildew 28 

Ergot 28 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


349 


PAGE. 

Smut 28 

Dragon's  Blood 105 

Draperies 179 

Dress  Goods ......  179 

Smooth 179 

Popeline 179 

Long  Ribs 179 

Damask 179 

Brocades 179 

Shawls 179 

Felbel 179 

Merino 179 

Thibet 179 

Serge 179 

Satin 179 

Coating 179 

Dried  Fruits 47 

Apples 47 

Pears 47 

Peaches 47 

Apricots 47 

Berries 47 

Drill 13G 

Linen 139 

Cotton 136 

Drop  Colors 100 

Dry  Oils 125 

Dry  Resins 107 

Elemi 107 

Dammar 107 

Guajak 107 

Sandarack 107 

Dynamite 291 

E. 

Earthenware 303 

Earthnuts 46 

Ebony 154 

Elaidin 125 

Elm 150 

Emerald 239-102 

Emery 251 

Emery  Paper 251 

Emery  Stone 251 

Epsom  Salt 283 

Ethereal  Oils Ill 

Euphorbium 115 


PAGE. 

Extract 49 

Lemon 49 

Orange 49 

Vanilla 52 

F. 

Farina » 29 

Fats 189 

Feathers 185 

Bed 186 

Ornamental 186 

Down 186 

Felts 178 

Fennel 53 

Ferrocj'anide 208 

Figs 43 

Figurestone 247 

Filberts 45 

Fir  Tree 153 

Fireworks 257 

Fish 197 

Fish  Oils 192 

Sperm 192 

Whale 193 

Flannels 178 

Flavin 99 

Flax 137 

Flexible  Asbestos 301 

Flounder 199 

Flour 29 

Fluor  Spar 244 

Fluid  Oils 126 

Fuchsin 102 

Fuller's  Earth 301 

English 302 

Saxon 302 

Fulminating  Mercury 319 

Fungus 161 

Furs 166 

Badger 169 

Bear 169 

Beaver 169 

Cat 167 

Chinchilla 17O 

Desman 169 

Dog 169 

Ermine....  167 


350 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

Fox 168 

Glutton 168 

Jaguar 167 

Leopard... 167 

Lion 167 

Lynx 169 

Martin 168 

Mole 169 

Muskrat 169 

Otter 168 

Raccoon 169 

Reindeer 169 

Sab'e 167 

Seal 169 

Serval 167 

Squirrel 170 

Tiger 167 

Wolf 169 

Fusil  Oil 90 

Fustic 99 

G. 

Galbanum 115 

Galena 325 

Gamboge 100 

Garnet 240 

Alamadin 240 

Karneel 240 

Pyrpp 240 

Gasoline 258 

Gauze 136 

Gedda 117 

Gelatine 187 

Gem  Stones 231 

Hard 232 

Semi-hard 232 

Soft 232 

Gin 90 

Ginger 76 

Gingham 136 

Glass-gall 283 

Glassware 303 

Glass 307 

Hollow 307 

Plate 308 

Flat 308 

White....  ..   308 


PAGE. 

Glaubers  Salt 282 

Glazing 126 

Glue 188 

Gold 310 

Gold-beater's  Skin 183 

Gold  Bronze 276 

Gold  Lace 313 

Gold  Leaf. 312 

Gold  Shell 312 

Gold  Solder 312 

Gold  Thread 313 

Graham 29 

Graphite 265 

Granite 250 

Grease,  Goose 192 

Mare's 192 

Green  Earth 274 

Grindstone 253 

Grits 29 

Groats 29 

Guano 206 

GumAmmonia 115 

Gum  Lac 103 

Gums 116 

Gum  Tragacanth 117 

Gun  Powder 289 

Gunny  Bags 140 

Gutta  Percha 121 

Gypsum 248 

H. 

Hair 174 

Alpaca 174 

Camel's 174 

Cashmere 174 

Goat 174 

Mohair 174 

Vicugna 174 

HairOil 112 

Hartshorn 185 

Heliotrope 243 

Hemp 137 

Hemp  Oil 126 

Henniquen 140 

Herring 201 

Hides  and  Skins 170 

Calf. 170 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


351 


PAGE. 

Sheep  and  Lamb 171 

Hog 161 

Kangaroo 171 

Honey 81 

Hops" 60 

Horn 180 

Buffalo 180 

Deer 180 

Goat 180 

Ox 180 

Sheep 180 

Horse  Hair 180 

Hyacinth 239 

Hydrometer 16 

Hydrostatic  Balance 16 

I. 

Indian  Corn 33 

Pop 34 

Sweet 34 

White 34 

Yellow 34 

India  Ink 158 

India  Rubber 119 

Vulcanized 120 

Indigo 93 

Bengal 94 

Benares 94 

Bimliputam 94 

Java 1)4 

Kurpah 94 

Madras 94 

Tirhoot 94 

Iron 331 

Cast 333 

Wrought  334 

Iron  Bronze 276 

Iron  Stone  China 307 

Isinglass 189 

Ivory 184 

J- 

Jaconet 136 

Jas|>er 243 

Jetolin 102 

Jauiic  dc  Cologne 270 

Juniper  Berrv  Oil Ill 

Jute .'. 140 


K. 

PAGE. 

Kamptulikon 75 

Karneol 242 

Kerosene 259 

L. 

Lactary 161 

Lamprey 202 

Lampblack 158 

Lard 191 

Lasting 179 

Lawn 139 

Lead 324 

Lead  Pencils 265 

Faber 265 

Dixon 265 

Leather 171 

Chagrin 172 

Greased 172 

Kid 172 

Morocco 172 

Shamoying 172 

Sleek 172 

Sole 171 

Waxed 172 

Lemons 48 

Lentils 31 

Licorice 82 

Calabre 82 

Lignite 263 

Lilac 152 

Lime 248 

Calcareous  Spar 249 

Fiberous 249 

Firm 249 

Earthy 249 

Gray ." 250 

Hydraulic 250 

Linden 150 

Ling 199 

Linen  Goods 139 

Lawn 139 

Cambric 139 

Damask 139 

Draper 139 

Toweling 139 

Crash....                             .  139 


352 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

Tick 139 

Duck 139 

Linen  Thread 138 

Linen  Yarns 138 

Linoleum , 75 

Linseed 56 

Linseed  Oil 125 

Lithographic  Stone 267 

Litharge 325 

Litmus 94 

Lobster 225 

American 225 

European 225 

Norwegian 225 

Logwood,  Extract  of 95 

M. 

Macaroni 30 

Macaroni  a  cann  a 31 

Tagliarini 31 

Vermicelli 31 

Macaroni  a  concha 31 

Lasagnette 31 

Mace 49 

Mackerel 198 

Spanish 198 

Tunny 198 

Madder 96 

Mad. a  Seed 56 

Mahogany 154 

Maize 33 

Malachite 245 

Malt 28 

Manganese  Ore 339 

Manioc 36 

Maple 152 

Maple  Sugar 80 

Marble 248 

Italian 249 

Breccia 249 

Clouded 249 

Streaked 249 

Mastic 104 

Mead 82 

Meal 29 

Meat 195 

Preserved .  195 


PAGE. 

Corned  Beef 196 

Canned 196 

Beef  Extract 196 

Butterine 196 

Sausages 195 

Meerschaum 246 

Bowls 246 

Stems 246 

Melting  Pots 303 

Hessian 303 

Graphite 304 

MenthOil 113 

Mercury 317 

Methyl 102 

Mexican  Fiber 141 

Mica 302 

Millet 33 

Millstones 254 

Quartz 254 

Lava 254 

Sandstone 254 

Mineral  Acids 278 

Mineral  Oils 257 

Mineral  Salts 282 

Mineral  White 269 

Mirrors 300-317 

Mohair 177 

Molasses 79 

Money 342 

Coin 342 

Paper 342 

Morel 161 

Mortar 249 

White  Lime 250 

Gray 250 

Hydraulic 250 

Concrete 250 

Moss,  Iceland 160 

Irish 160 

Mosaic 277 

Mother-of-Pearl 213 

Bullock  Shells 213 

Pearl  Buttons 213 

Mother  of  Cloves 59 

Mountain  Blue 273 

Mountain  Green 274 

Mountain  Tar 106 

Muriate  of  Tin 293 


CONTEXTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


353 


PAGE. 

Chloride  of  Tin 293 

Muriatic  Acid 280 

Mushroom 161 

Musk 204 

Mustard 55 

White 55 

Black 55 

Mustard  Oil 127 

N. 

Naphtha 257 

Nankin 136 

Neat's-foot  Oil 192 

Nickel 337 

Nicotine 64 

Nitric  Acid 279 

AcquaFortis 280 

Yellow 280 

Fire  Red 280 

Nitrate  of  Mercury 280 

Nitrate  of  Soda " 289 

Nitrate  of  Silver 317 

Nitro  Glycerine 291 

Dynamite 291 

Dualin 291 

Palein 291 

Lithofracteur 291 

Rackarock 291 

Nudels 31 

Nutmeg 49 

Nut  Oil 126 

Nuts 45 

Brazil 45 

Filberts 45 

Walnuts 46 

Pecans 46 

Peanuts 46 

O. 

Oats 27 

Common 28 

Hungarian 28 

Siberian 28 

Naked..... 28 

China 28 

Short 28 

23 


PAGE. 

Oat  Meal 29 

Ochre 269 

Red 270 

Yellow 270 

Oil  Crayons 276 

Oil  of  Hartshorn 209 

Oil  of  Lavende- 112 

Oil  of  Rose 112 

Oil  of  Turpentine Ill 

Oil  of  Vitriol.' 278 

Olive  Oil 123 

Opal 241 

P. 

Palm  Butter 127 

Paper 142 

Writing  and  Printing....  145 

Wrapping 145 

Blotting 146 

Filtering 146 

Rice 146 

Chinese 146 

Paraffine  Oil 259 

Parchment , 173 

Pearl  B  .rley 29 

Pearl  White 269 

Pearls 212 

False 213 

Roman 213 

Peas 31 

Gray 31 

Green 31 

Yellow 31 

Pepper 52 

Black 52 

White 52 

Spanish 53 

Cayenne 53 

Pernambuco  Wood 97 

Petroleum 257 

Pewter 327 

Phosphorus 256 

Phosphate  of  Acid 556 

Amorphor 257 

Matches 257 

Pickles 47 

Mixed 47 


354 


CONTENTS  AND  GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

Common 47 

Pike 200 

Pistachio  Nuts 44 

Pitch 158 

Platinum 313 

Sponge 314 

Metallic 313 

Black 314 

Plume  Alum 301 

Plug  Tobacco...' 69 

Pockwood 156 

Polishing  Slate 252 

Poppy-seed  Oil 126 

Porcelain 305 

China 306 

Japan 306 

Saxony 306 

Bohemian 306 

Bavarian 306 

Iron  Stone  China 307 

Porphyx 250 

Potstone 247 

Potash 297 

Pearl  Ash 297 

Stone  Ash 297 

Hungarian 297 

Peru 297 

Pottery 304 

Common 304 

Majolika 30  t 

Terrolith 304 

Precious  Quartz 242 

Chalcedony.! 242 

Cat's  Eye 243 

Heliotrope 243 

Crysoprose 243 

Avanturine 243 

Jasper 243 

Preserving  Cereals.  Man- 
ner of. 28 

Protoxide  of  Chrome 274 

Prunes 44 

French 44 

California 44 

Turkey 44 

Prunelles 44 

Prussian  Blue 207 

Turnbull's 207 


PAGE. 

Royal 208 

Mineral 208 

Pulp  and  Paper  Products   146 

Cardboard 146 

Paper  Hangings 147 

Tracing  Paper 147 

Building    and     Roofing 

Paper 147 

Paper-mache" 148 

Q- 

Quercitron  Bark 99 

Quicksilver 317 

Fulminating 319 

Quills 180-186 

R. 

Rape-seed  Oil 126 

Raisins 42 

Smyrna 42 

Damascus 42 

Malaga 43 

Valencia 43 

Realgar 271 

Redwood 97 

Red  Lead 271 

Resin 103 

Rice 32 

Egyptian 32 

Carolina 32 

Indian 32 

Italian 32 

Broken 32 

Meal 32 

Rock  Crystal 241 

Rookwood  Pottery 307 

Rye 1 27 

Winter... 27 


S. 


Saccharometer 81 

Saiflower 98 

Safranin 102 

Saffron....                        59 


CONTEXTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


355 


PAGE. 

Sago 36 

Pearl 36 

Salmon 200 

Parr 200 

Peal 200 

Smelt 200 

Grilse 200 

Sal  Ammonia 294 

Salt 291 

Saltpeter 288    ' 

Indian 289   i 

American 289 

Salt  of  Sorrel 162   ' 

Sandarack 108   i 

Sandal  Wood 96   i 

Red.^ 96   ! 

Yellow 96   i 

White 96   ! 

Sand  Paper 251    ; 

Sandstone 250 

Sapphire 237   , 

Sardines 202 

Sarsenet 135   : 

Sassafras 112   i 

Sassafras  Oil 112    i 

Satin 179 

Satin  Spar 24-5 

Satin  Wood 157 

Schweinfurth  Green 274 

Sea  Weed 141 

Seeds 56 

Linseed 56 

Hemp  Seed 56 

Rape  Seed 56 

Madia  Seed 56 

Clover  Seed 5G 

Timothy 57 

Seed  Oil...". 125 

Senna  Leaves 72 

Sepia 210 

Serge 170 

Serpentire 2    7 

Sesam  Oil 127 

Shad 202 

Shale  Naphtha 259 

Shale  Naphtha  Oil 259 

Shawls 17S 

Shellac...  .   103 


PAGE. 

Sheeting,  Cotton 136 

Linen 139 

Shirting 136 

Shot 325 

Swan 325 

Pea  and  Dust 325 

Shrimp 225 

Silk 214 

Worms 214 

Orgazine 216 

Tram 216 

Raw 216 

Thread 217 

Ribbons 217 

Handkerchiefs 217 

Silks 217 

Coarse 218 

Smooth 218 

Pure 217 

Mixed 217 

Gauze 219 

Atlas 219 

Fashioned 219 

Jacquard 219 

Velvet 220 

Knit 220 

Reticular 220 

Watered 221 

Silver 314 

Ruby 315 

Chloride 315 

Wrought 316 

Bullion 316 

Sisal  Grass 140 

Skins 17O 

Dog 171 

Calf. 170 

Hog 171 

Kangaroo 171 

Sheepor  Lamb 171 

Slate 250 

Slate  Pencils  267 

Brown 267 

Smalt 272-337 

Snails 211 

Snuff 69 

Soap 194 

White....  .   194 


356 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

Yellow 194 

Powder 195 

Toilet 195 

Soapstone 247 

Soda 298 

Carbonate  of 298 

Kelp 299 

Bicarbonate  of 299 

Caustic 299 

Solid  Vegetable  Fats 127 

Cocoa  Butter 127 

Palm  Butter 127 

CocoanutOil 128 

Spanish  "White 269 

Spelter 329 

Spirits  of  Camphor 113 

Sponges 229 

Levant 230 

West  Indies 230 

Florida 230 

Starch 34 

Corn 35 

Rice 35 

Potato 35 

Arrow  Root 35 

Steel 335 

Blistered 336 

Cast 336 

Chromium 336 

Mild 336 

Puddle 336 

Damask 336 

Silver 336 

St.  John's  Bread 54 

Stoneware 305 

Straw  Wares 141 

Hats 142 

Panama  Hats 142 

Mexican  Sombrero 142 

Sugar 78 

Brown 79 

Cut-loaf 79 

Pulverized 79 

Granulated 79 

C 79 

A 79 

Sub  Carbonate  of  Potash  298 
Sulphur 255 


PAGE. 

Sulphuric  Acid 278 

Oil  of  Vitriol 278 

Common 279 

Sulphureted  Hydrogen...  279 

Sweet  Oil 124 

Syenite 250 

Syrup 80 

T. 

Table    of    Foreign    and 

United  States  Gold  Coins  340 
Table    of    Foreign    and 
United    States     Silver 

Coins 341 

Taffer 337 

Talc !..   269 

Tallow 191 

Tapioca 36 

Rio 36 

Bahia 36 

Tartar 163 

Crude 163 

Cream  of. 163 

Baking  Powder 164 

Tartaric  Acid 164 

Tea 69 

Green 71 

Black 71 

Pekoe 70 

Paraguay 72 

Chinese 71 

Japan 71 

Teak 156 

Teasels 61 

Terra  Cotta  Ware 305 

ThymOil 113 

Tin 326 

Block 327 

Grain 327 

Tobacco 63 

West  Indian 65 

South  American 65 

Asiatic 67 

North  American 66 

European 67 

Toilet  Water 112 

Topaz - 238 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


357 


PAGE. 

Colorless 238 

Green 238 

Red 238 

Tortoise  Shell 182 

Touchstone 253 

Tripoli 252 

Trout 200 

Brook 201 

Speckled 201 

Truffle 161 

Turtnuric 100 

Turpentine 109 

Common 109 

Venetian 109 

French 109 

U. 

Ultramarine 272 

Umber 275 

V. 

Vanilla 50 

Camphor 51 

Vegetable  Fats 123 

Vegetable  Wax 128 

Japanese.  128 

Brazilian 128 

Myrtle 128 

Chinese 128 

Veneer 157 

Victuals 195 

Vinegar 92 

Wine 92 

Fruit 92 

Wood 92 

Violet  Quartz 242 

Vitriol,  Green 285 

W. 

Walnut 153 

Wash  Blue 273 

Wax 221 

Yellow 221 

White 221 

Bees ,  ..  221 


PAGE. 

Weld 99 

Whale  Bone 181 

Wheat 25 

Bald 25 

Bearded 25 

Winter 25 

Summer 25 

Qualities 26 

No.  1  Hard 26 

No.  1  Northern.... 26 

No.  2  Northern 26 

No.  3  Northern 26 

Rejected 26 

Whetstones 253 

Oilstones 254 

White  Lead 268 

Whiting 287 

White  Vitriol 266 

Whisky 89 

Rum'. 90 

Gin 90 

Arrack 90 

Potato 90 

Molasses 90 

Fruit 91 

Winespirit 90 

Grain 90 

Taffia 91 

Willow-ware 14-2 

Baskets 142 

Wine 83 

White 84 

Red 84 

Champaign 84 

Port 85 

Per  cent  of  Alcohol 85 

Rhine 86 

Wooden  ware 157 

Furniture 157 

Playthings 157 

Wood  Charcoal 158 

Wood  Tar 158 

Wool 175 

Long-fleeced 1 76 

Short-fleeced 176 

Woolen  Yarn 176 

Zephyr 177 

Fantasia 177 


358 


CONTENTS  AND   GLOSSARY. 


PAGE. 

Mohair 177 

Alpaca 177 

Woolen  Materials 177 

Cloths 177 

Table  Spreads 178 

Cashmere 178 

Buckskin....                        .  178 


PAGE. 
Yellowwood 99 

Z. 

Zircone 239 

Yellow 240 

Red ..   240 


THE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

Santa  Barbara 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW. 


Series  9482 


DC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  UBRARY  FACIUTY 


A     000  721  531     2 


